India: Difference between revisions

Line 215:

Moreover, India is facing increased ''droughts'', ''floods'', ''cyclones'', and ''vector-borne diseases'' due to climate variability. Cities like '''Chennai''' are projected to see a twofold increase in annual heatwave days by 2030.<ref name="urbanheat">The Hindu, "Heatwave Trends in Indian Cities", June 2025.</ref> Rising sea levels threaten low-lying regions such as the '''Sundarbans''', '''Ghoramara Island''', and coastal megacities, with over 35% of the population residing within 100 km of the coast.<ref name="searise1">UNEP Report, "South Asia Coastal Risk Map", 2024.</ref> In response, India has expanded its ''National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)'' and launched the Bharat Forecasting System in 2025 to improve extreme weather prediction, while also undertaking new adaptation initiatives like the '''MISHTI''' mangrove restoration project.<ref name="policy2025">Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), "India's Climate Adaptation Strategy 2025", June 2025.</ref>

~~== Government and Politics ==~~

'''Biodiversity'''

~~India is a~~ '''~~federal parliamentary republic~~''', governed by the [[Constitution of India]]. The President is the ceremonial head of state, while the Prime Minister leads the government. The Parliament consists of the [[Lok Sabha]] (House of the People) and [[Rajya Sabha]] (Council of States).

India is a megadiverse country, one among 17 nations worldwide with exceptional biological diversity and significant numbers of endemic species.<ref>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/2041-210X.13705.</ref> It is home to 8.6% of global mammals, 13.7% of birds, 7.9% of reptiles, 6% of amphibians, 12.2% of fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plants.<ref>GBIF, “India biodiversity statistics”, 2024.</ref> Nearly one-third of India’s plant species are endemic.<ref>https://bsi.gov.in/annual-reports-of-bsi/en.</ref>

~~== Economy ==~~

India contains four of the world's 34 biodiversity hotspots: the Western Ghats, Indo–Burma, Himalaya, and parts of the Sundaland biome (in Andaman and Nicobar Islands).<ref>https://www.conservation.org/</ref>

~~India’s economy ranks among~~ the ~~top 5 globally by nominal GDP. It is diverse~~, ~~with major contributions from:~~

* Information Technology (IT)

* Agriculture

* Manufacturing

* Pharmaceuticals

* Space and Atomic research

== ~~Culture~~ ==

The country’s densest forests—such as the tropical moist forests of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and Northeast India—cover approximately 3% of its land area.<ref>https://fsi.nic.in/forest-report-2023</ref> Moderately dense forests (40–70% canopy cover), which include temperate coniferous forests in the Himalayas, moist deciduous sal forests of eastern India, and dry deciduous teak forests of central and southern India, cover about 9.4% of the land area.<ref>FSI, 2023.</ref> There are also two natural thorn forest zones: one in the Deccan Plateau east of the Western Ghats, and another in the irrigated regions of the western Indo–Gangetic Plain.<ref>Champion & Seth, 1968.</ref>

India’s ~~cultural legacy~~ is ~~seen~~ in its ~~food~~, ~~festivals~~, ~~languages~~, ~~music~~, ~~clothing~~, and ~~cinema~~. It is ~~home~~ to [[~~Bollywood~~]], one of the ~~world’s~~ largest ~~film industries~~. ~~Every~~ region has its ~~own~~ folk traditions, ~~crafts~~, and ~~customs~~.

Notable native trees include [[Azadirachta indica]] (neem), widely used in traditional medicine, and [[Ficus religiosa]] (peepul), revered in culture and religion since ancient times, even appearing on seals from Mohenjo-daro and linked to stories of the Buddha's enlightenment.<ref>Michael, A. Ethnobotany of India, 2021.</ref><refhttps://www.cambridgescholars.com/product/978-1-5275-8833-2.</ref>

Several Indian species are remnants of Gondwanan lineages, while others arrived after India’s collision with Eurasia. This geological mixing resulted in low mammal endemism (12.6%) but high levels among reptiles (45.8%) and amphibians (55.8%).<ref>Meiri et al., Global Reptile Endemism, 2022.</ref> Endemic species include the vulnerable hooded leaf monkey and the threatened Beddome's toad, both found in the Western Ghats.<ref>IUCN Red List, 2024.</ref><ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330134545_Herpetofaunal_survey_in_rainforest_remnants_of_the_Western_Ghats_India.</ref>

India hosts 172 IUCN‑designated threatened animal species (~2.9% of global threatened fauna). These include the Bengal tiger and Ganges river dolphin (endangered), and critically endangered species such as the gharial, great Indian bustard, and white‑rumped vulture, which has suffered due to diclofenac poisoning in cattle carcasses.<ref>IUCN Red List, 2024.</ref><ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/378610298_AGRICULTURE_FOOD_e-Newsletter_Causes_and_consequences_of_vulture_decline_in_India_and_the_world</ref> Historical habitats like Punjab's thorn forests and grasslands, once home to blackbuck and Asiatic cheetah, have been largely converted to agriculture; blackbuck are now endangered, and cheetah is extinct in India.<ref>Khurana et al., Wildlife of Punjab, 2022.</ref>

To preserve wildlife, India has significantly strengthened its conservation framework. National parks and protected areas—first established in 1935—expanded dramatically, especially after the 1972 Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger, complemented by the 1980 Forest Conservation Act.<ref>Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), 2023.</ref><ref>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/pan3.10177</ref> Presently, India manages 500+ wildlife sanctuaries, 18 biosphere reserves (four in the World Network), and 89 Ramsar wetlands.<ref>UNESCO Biosphere Reserves, 2024.</ref><ref>Ramsar Convention, 2024.</ref>

India’s biodiversity—rich yet threatened—is now being supported by renewed efforts in protected area management, community-based conservation, and species recovery programs aimed at balancing ecological integrity with sustainable development.

=='''Politics and government'''==

India is a [[federal parliamentary republic]], where power is shared between the [[Union government]] in New Delhi and state governments across 28 states and 8 union territories.<ref>Government of India, Constitution of India, 1950.</ref> The President of India serves as the ceremonial head of state, while the Prime Minister is the head of government and exercises executive authority.<ref>https://mpa.gov.in/.</ref> The [[Parliament of India]] is bicameral, comprising the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People), with representatives elected every five years.<refhttps://www.eci.gov.in/eci-backend/public/api/download?url=LMAhAK6sOPBp%2FNFF0iRfXbEB1EVSLT41NNLRjYNJJP1KivrUxbfqkDatmHy12e%2FztfbUTpXSxLP8g7dpVrk7%2FUZO%2FRM8%2BpHWJVE21FjUm4%2BeU4yXpAjiBqWC6EDPgOw6dOFtn933icz0MOeiesxvsQ%3D%3D</ref>

State governments have their own legislative assemblies and, in some states, legislative councils. Chief Ministers—elected by the legislative assemblies—serve as the heads of state governments under the symbolic authority of Governors appointed by the President.<ref>Constitution of India, Articles 155–167.</ref>

India follows a multiparty democratic system. The dominant national parties include the [[Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)]] and the [[Indian National Congress]] (INC), along with regional parties such as the [[Trinamool Congress]], [[Aam Aadmi Party]], and [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK)]].<ref>https://adrindia.org/</ref>

The judiciary is independent, with the [[Supreme Court of India]] at its apex, followed by High Courts at the state level and subordinate courts below. The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review and serves as the final authority on constitutional matters.<ref>https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s3ec0490f1f4972d133619a60c30f3559e/uploads/2024/11/2024112991.pdf.</ref>

India’s constitution guarantees a range of rights, including fundamental rights (e.g., equality, freedom of speech, and religion) and Directive Principles of State Policy, which serve as guidelines for governance.<ref>Constitution of India, Chapters III & IV.</ref> It also provides reservation quotas for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes in education and government jobs to ensure social equity.<ref>Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Report on Reservations 2024.</ref>

Elections at the Union and State levels are overseen by the [[Election Commission of India]], an autonomous body established to ensure free and fair elections using Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter-Verified Paper Audit Trails (VVPAT).<ref>https://www.eci.gov.in/annual-audit-reports.</ref>

India’s political landscape includes diverse institutions and mechanisms for accountability, such as the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG), the Central Vigilance Commission (CVC), and the Right to Information Act (RTI), enacted in 2005 to promote transparency.<ref>https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s380537a945c7aaa788ccfcdf1b99b5d8f/uploads/2024/07/202407041095928324.pdf.</ref>

At the international level, India's foreign policy is shaped by its non-aligned history, strategic partnerships, and growing role in global forums such as [[BRICS]], [[G20]], [[QUAD]], and the United Nations.<ref>https://www.mea.gov.in/Annual_Reports.htm?dtl/38005/Annual_Report_20232024</ref>

=='''Government'''==

India operates as a '''sovereign socialist secular democratic republic''' governed by a '''parliamentary system''' as outlined in the [[Constitution of India]], which came into effect on 26 January 1950.<ref>Government of India. (1950). The Constitution of India. Ministry of Law and Justice. Retrieved from https://legislative.gov.in/constitution-of-india</ref> The [[President of India]] is the formal head of the state and serves primarily ceremonial duties, while real executive power lies with the [[Prime Minister]], who is the head of government and leads the [[Union Council of Ministers]].<ref>President of India. (2024). Role and Functions. Retrieved from https://presidentofindia.nic.in/</ref>

The Indian government is divided into three main branches: the Executive, the Legislature, and the Judiciary.

The Executive consists of the [[President]], [[Vice President]], [[Prime Minister]], and the [[Council of Ministers]]. The [[Prime Minister of India]] is appointed by the President and is generally the leader of the majority party or coalition in the [[Lok Sabha]]. The Council of Ministers aids and advises the President in the exercise of their functions.<ref>Press Information Bureau. (2023). Structure of Indian Executive. Retrieved from https://www.pib.gov.in/indexd.aspx</ref>

The Legislature, known as the [[Parliament of India]], is bicameral and consists of two houses: the [[Rajya Sabha]] (Council of States) and the [[Lok Sabha]] (House of the People). The Lok Sabha is directly elected by the citizens through general elections held every five years, while the Rajya Sabha members are elected by state legislative assemblies or nominated by the President.<ref>Lok Sabha Secretariat. (2024). Functioning of Parliament. Retrieved from https://loksabha.nic.in</ref>

The Judiciary is independent and is headed by the [[Supreme Court of India]], followed by High Courts in each state and lower courts at district and subordinate levels. The judiciary is entrusted with upholding the Constitution, interpreting laws, and delivering justice. The Supreme Court has the power of [[judicial review]] and is the guardian of fundamental rights.

India's federal structure divides powers between the Union and the States, detailed in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution under the Union List, State List, and Concurrent List.<ref>Ministry of Law and Justice. (2023). Distribution of Legislative Powers. Retrieved from https://legislative.gov.in/</ref> Each state has its own government with a [[Governor]] as the ceremonial head and a [[Chief Minister]] as the real executive authority.

India ensures democratic participation through institutions like the [[Election Commission of India]], which conducts free and fair elections at both national and state levels.<ref>Election Commission of India. (2023). Electoral Process in India. Retrieved from https://eci.gov.in</ref> Laws are enforced by civil services and police under the oversight of various ministries and departments, while the legislative oversight is exercised through parliamentary debates, questions, and committees.

The government also provides reservation policies for [[Scheduled Castes]], [[Scheduled Tribes]], and [[Other Backward Classes]] in education and employment, and has schemes to address poverty, health, education, and social welfare through ministries like the [[Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment]] and the [[Ministry of Rural Development]].<ref>Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. (2024). Annual Report. Retrieved from https://socialjustice.gov.in/</ref>

=='''Administrative divisions'''==

India is a [[federal union]] comprising 28 states and 8 union territories. Each state and union territory has its own administrative structure, with division of power between the [[Union government]] and the respective state or territory governments as defined in the [[Constitution of India]].<ref>Government of India. (2024). States and Union Territories. National Portal of India. Retrieved from https://www.india.gov.in/</ref>

Each [[state]] has its own [[Legislative Assembly]] and an elected [[Chief Minister]] who heads the executive branch, while the [[Governor]] acts as the ceremonial head, appointed by the [[President of India]]. Some states also have a bicameral legislature with a [[Legislative Council]] as the upper house (e.g., Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar, and Telangana).<ref>Ministry of Home Affairs. (2024). States and Their Legislatures. Retrieved from https://xn--i1b5bzbybhfo5c8b4bxh.xn--11b7cb3a6a.xn--h2brj9c/en</ref>

The [[union territories]] are governed directly by the [[Central Government]] through an appointed [[Lieutenant Governor]] or [[Administrator]]. However, three union territories—[[Delhi]], [[Puducherry]], and [[Jammu and Kashmir]]—have been granted partial statehood, meaning they have elected legislative assemblies and enjoy a greater degree of self-governance.<ref>Election Commission of India. (2023). Delimitation and Governance of UTs. Retrieved from https://www.eci.gov.in/</ref>

For administrative purposes, states and union territories are further divided into districts (as of 2024, over 775 in total), which are governed by a [[District Collector]] or [[District Magistrate]] appointed from the Indian Administrative Service (IAS). Each district is subdivided into [[tehsils]] or [[talukas]], and further into blocks, towns, and villages.

''To promote decentralisation, India follows a three-tier system of local self-government:''

• Gram Panchayats at the village level,

• Panchayat Samitis at the block level,

• Zila Parishads at the district level in rural areas, and

•Municipal Corporations, Municipal Councils, and Nagar Panchayats in urban areas.<ref>Ministry of Panchayati Raj. (2024). Structure and Role of PRIs. Retrieved from https://panchayat.gov.in</ref>

This administrative structure ensures governance and service delivery across a vast and diverse population. '''Article 1''' of the Constitution describes India as a "[[Union of States]]", which signifies that the Indian federation is not the result of an agreement among states, and states do not have the right to secede.<ref>Constitution of India. (1950). Article 1. Retrieved from https://legislative.gov.in/</ref>

=='''Foreign, economic, and strategic relations'''==

Since gaining independence in 1947, India has pursued a foreign policy rooted in principles of non-alignment and peaceful coexistence. Under [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], India became a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), choosing not to formally align with either the [[United States]] or the Soviet Union during the Cold War.<ref>Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. (2024). India and the Non-Aligned Movement. Retrieved from https://www.mea.gov.in/</ref>

In the 21st century, India's foreign relations have diversified significantly. It maintains strategic partnerships with major global powers such as the [[United States]], [[Russia]], the European Union, Japan, and increasingly with Australia. India is also an active participant in regional and multilateral platforms such as:

•'''United Nations''' (UN),

•'''World Trade Organization''' (WTO),

•'''South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation''' (SAARC),

•'''Shanghai Cooperation Organisation''' (SCO),

•''BRICS'' (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa), and

•'''Quadrilateral Security Dialogue''' (Quad), alongside the US, Japan, and Australia.<ref>United Nations India. (2023). India's Engagement with the UN. Retrieved from https://india.un.org</ref><ref>MEA India. (2024). India's Strategic Partners. Retrieved from https://www.mea.gov.in/</ref>

India's immediate neighbourhood policy—Neighbourhood First—prioritises strong diplomatic and economic ties with South Asian countries like [[Nepal]], Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and [[Maldives]]. However, its relationship with [[Pakistan]] has remained tense due to historical conflicts, especially over [[Kashmir]]. Bilateral ties with [[China]] have also been strained by border disputes, notably the 2020 Galwan Valley clash.<ref>Al Jazeera. (2023). India-China Border Tensions Continue. Retrieved from https://www.aljazeera.com</ref>

Economically, India has emerged as one of the world's fastest-growing major economies. It is a key player in global trade and investment. The government promotes initiatives like [[Make in India]], [[Digital India]], and [[Startup India]] to boost exports, attract foreign investment, and develop high-tech infrastructure.<ref>Ministry of Commerce and Industry. (2024). India’s Economic Diplomacy. Retrieved from https://commerce.gov.in/</ref>

India is also a major contributor to [[United Nations peacekeeping operations]] and actively promotes global development, South-South cooperation, and climate action. As part of the [[International Solar Alliance]] (ISA), co-founded with France, India is leading global efforts in renewable energy adoption.<ref>International Solar Alliance. (2024). Member Countries. Retrieved from https://isolaralliance.org/</ref>

Strategically, India maintains one of the largest military forces in the world. It is a ''nuclear weapons state'' and operates a tri-service command structure—''Indian Army'', ''Indian Navy'', and ''Indian Air Force''. India is also expanding its influence in the ''Indo-Pacific'' region through naval cooperation and maritime security dialogues.<ref>Global Firepower Index. (2024). India Military Ranking 2024. Retrieved from https://www.globalfirepower.com/</ref>

India’s foreign policy today balances its historic values of peaceful diplomacy with its contemporary ambitions of becoming a regional and global power.

'''Economy'''

The '''Economy of India''' is a '''mixed economy'''—featuring both public and private sector participation—ranking as the fifth-largest in the world by nominal GDP and the third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP) as of 2024.<ref>International Monetary Fund. (April 2024). World Economic Outlook Database. Retrieved from https://www.imf.org/en/Home</ref> With an average GDP growth rate of 6–7% over the past decade, India is one of the fastest-growing major economies globally.

The Indian economy has undergone significant transformation since the 1991 economic liberalization, when reforms opened up the country to foreign investment, privatization, and reduced trade barriers. These changes led to a surge in sectors like information technology, telecommunications, banking, and pharmaceuticals.<ref>World Bank. (2023). India Country Overview. Retrieved from https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/india</ref>

Today, India's economy is broadly divided into:

•Agriculture, which employs around 43% of the workforce but contributes less than 18% to GDP;

•Industry, including manufacturing, construction, and energy, contributing about 25% to GDP;

•Services sector, which is the largest contributor at over 55% of GDP, including IT, finance, and education.<ref>Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI), Government of India. (2024). GDP Sectoral Composition. Retrieved from https://mospi.gov.in/</ref>

India is a global leader in IT and software services, with cities like Bengaluru, [[Hyderabad]], and [[Pune]] hosting major tech firms. Tata Consultancy Services (TCS), Infosys, and Wipro are among the top global IT service providers.<ref>NASSCOM. (2024). Indian IT Sector Outlook. Retrieved from https://nasscom.in/</ref>

The country also has a robust financial system, with institutions like the [[Reserve Bank of India]] (RBI) playing a central role in monetary policy and regulation. The Mumbai Stock Exchange (BSE) and the National Stock Exchange (NSE) are among the largest stock exchanges in the world by market capitalization.<ref>RBI Annual Report 2023-24. Retrieved from https://www.rbi.org.in/</ref>

India's agricultural output ranks second globally and it is a major exporter of rice, spices, cotton, tea, and sugar. Government schemes like PM-KISAN, eNAM, and the Minimum Support Price (MSP) system aim to support farmers and improve rural incomes.<ref>Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare. (2024). Retrieved from https://agriwelfare.gov.in/</ref>

The country is also a major player in the manufacturing sector, particularly through the government's flagship '''Make in India''' initiative, which encourages both domestic and foreign companies to manufacture in India. Industrial corridors, SEZs, and infrastructure projects are accelerating this growth.<ref>Make in India. (2024). Retrieved from https://www.makeinindia.com</ref>

''Foreign Direct Investment'' (FDI) inflows into India reached over $85 billion in 2023–24, with major investments in fintech, e-commerce, real estate, and renewable energy.<ref>Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT). (2024). Retrieved from https://dpiit.gov.in</ref>

The Indian government has also launched transformative initiatives such as:

''Digital India'' – promoting digital infrastructure and internet access,

''Startup India'' – supporting entrepreneurship and innovation,

''Atmanirbhar Bharat'' – aimed at making India self-reliant in key sectors.

India is a major energy consumer, dependent on oil imports but also expanding rapidly in renewable energy. It ranks fourth in the world for installed renewable energy capacity, driven by initiatives under the International Solar Alliance and domestic solar/wind projects.<ref>International Energy Agency (IEA). (2024). India Energy Outlook. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org</ref>

''Despite the progress, India faces challenges such as:''

• high unemployment among youth,

• rural-urban economic disparity,

• inflationary pressures,

•infrastructure gaps.

However, with its young population, growing middle class, and strong entrepreneurial ecosystem, India is expected to remain a key driver of global economic growth in the coming decades.

=='''''Culture'''''==

The '''Culture of India''' is one of the world's oldest and most diverse, shaped by a long history of regional, linguistic, religious, and ethnic multiplicity. It reflects a rich tapestry of traditions, spiritual philosophies, literature, art, and social norms that have evolved over thousands of years. Indian culture has had a significant influence on regions across Asia, the Middle East, and even parts of Europe, particularly through the spread of religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism via the Silk Road and maritime trade.<ref>https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/lekl125.pdf</ref>

'''Religion and Spirituality'''

India is the birthplace of several major world religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. It is also home to substantial populations of Muslims, Christians, Zoroastrians, Jews, and Baháʼís. Religious diversity and tolerance have historically been integral to Indian society, though interfaith dynamics have sometimes led to tensions.<ref>Government of India, Ministry of Minority Affairs. (2024). Religious Communities in India. Retrieved from https://minorityaffairs.gov.in</ref>

'''Languages and Literature'''

India recognizes 22 official languages under the Eighth Schedule of the [[Constitution of India]], with [[Hindi]] in the Devanagari script as the official language of the central government and English as an associate official language.<ref>Ministry of Home Affairs. (2024). Language Policy. Retrieved from https://www.mha.gov.in</ref> Major regional languages include Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, and Kannada.

India has a vast literary heritage, with ancient texts such as the ''Vedas'', ''Upanishads'', ''Ramayana'', and ''Mahabharata''. Classical literature in ''Sanskrit'', ''Tamil'', and ''Pali'' flourished alongside regional traditions. In modern times, authors like ''Rabindranath Tagore'', ''Premchand'', ''R.K. Narayan'', ''Arundhati Roy'', and ''Salman Rushdie'' have gained international recognition.<ref>India's Ministry of Culture. (2024). Literary Heritage of India. Retrieved from https://www.indiaculture.nic.in</ref>

'''Art and Architecture'''

India boasts a broad spectrum of art forms, from the cave paintings of ''Ajanta'' and ''Ellora'' to contemporary installations. Major schools of painting include ''Mughal miniature'', ''Rajput'', and ''Madhubani'' styles. Sculpture and temple architecture have evolved under dynasties like the ''Maurya'', ''Chola'', and [[Mughal Empire]], with iconic structures such as the [[Taj Mahal]], ''Khajuraho temples'', and ''Konark Sun Temple''.<ref>Archaeological Survey of India. (2024). Retrieved from https://asi.nic.in</ref>

'''Performing Arts'''

India's performing arts encompass a rich tradition of ''classical music'', ''dance'', and ''theatre''. Classical dance forms include ''Bharatanatyam'', ''Kathak'', ''Odissi'', ''Kuchipudi'', and ''Manipuri'', each with deep roots in temple rituals and storytelling.<ref>Sangeet Natak Akademi. (2024). Classical Dance and Music Traditions of India. Retrieved from https://sangeetnatak.gov.in/</ref>

Classical music is broadly categorized into the ''Hindustani'' tradition of the north and the ''Carnatic'' style of the south. Popular music includes genres like ''Bollywood music'', ''Indipop'', ''folk music'', and ''fusion''.

'''Cinema and Media'''

India has the largest film industry in the world by volume, with thousands of movies produced annually in languages like Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, and Bengali. Bollywood, centered in Mumbai, is internationally renowned. Indian cinema has gained global acclaim through filmmakers such as Satyajit Ray, Rajkumar Hirani, and SS Rajamouli.

India is also a leader in media production, with an expansive network of television, radio, and digital content across multiple languages. News and entertainment channels reach hundreds of millions daily.

'''Cuisine'''

Indian cuisine is known for its diverse flavors, aromatic spices, and regional variation. Staple ingredients include rice, lentils, wheat, spices like ''turmeric'', ''cardamom'', and ''cumin'', and herbs such as ''coriander'' and ''mint''. Regional cuisines such as ''Punjabi'', ''South Indian'', ''Gujarati'', ''Bengali'', and ''Kashmiri'' offer unique flavors and cooking techniques.<ref>Ministry of Tourism, Government of India. (2024). Incredible India – Cuisine. Retrieved from https://www.incredibleindia.gov.in/en</ref>

Indian food has a vast international following, with Indian restaurants and culinary traditions influencing global gastronomy.

'''Festivals and Traditions'''

''India celebrates a multitude of religious and cultural festivals, including:''

•'''Diwali''' (Festival of Lights),

•'''Holi''' (Festival of Colors),

•'''Eid al-Fitr''',

•'''Christmas''',

•'''Navratri''',

•'''Pongal''',

•'''Onam'''.

These festivals are marked by music, dance, rituals, and community gatherings, often blending religious devotion with social celebration.<ref>Press Information Bureau. (2024). Indian Festivals and Celebrations. Retrieved from https://www.pib.gov.in/indexd.aspx</ref>

== Religion and Society ==

India is a secular ~~nation with~~ a ~~pluralistic society~~. ~~Major religions include [[~~Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Christianity]], [[~~Sikhism~~]], [[~~Buddhism~~]], and [[~~Jainism~~]]. ~~The Indian Constitution guarantees freedom of religion~~ and ~~cultural expression~~.

[[India]] is one of the most religiously diverse nations in the world, home to all major world religions and many indigenous faiths. The country has no official state religion, and the [[Constitution of India]] declares it a secular state, guaranteeing freedom of religion under ''Article 25'' and prohibiting discrimination on religious grounds.<ref>Government of India. (2024). Constitution of India – Article 25. Retrieved from https://legislative.gov.in/</ref>

India is the birthplace of four of the world's major religions — ''Hinduism'', ''Buddhism'', ''Jainism'', and ''Sikhism'' — and continues to be a significant center of spiritual and religious activity. Hinduism is practiced by around 79.8% of the population, followed by Islam (14.2%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.7%), Buddhism (0.7%), and Jainism (0.4%), according to the 2011 Census.<ref>Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. (2011). Census of India – Religious Composition. Retrieved from https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/</ref>

Despite its constitutional commitment to secularism, religion plays a central role in Indian public and private life. Temples, mosques, churches, gurdwaras, and monasteries serve not only as places of worship but also as centers for education, healthcare, and community service.

'''Religious Harmony and Conflict'''

India has a long tradition of religious pluralism and syncretism. Cities like Varanasi, Amritsar, and Ajmer have served as religious melting pots for centuries. Sufi and Bhakti movements historically promoted interfaith harmony, stressing devotion over ritual and dogma.<ref>https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Past_as_Present/zLrFvQEACAAJ?hl=en</ref>

However, the country has also witnessed episodes of religious violence and tension. Notable incidents include the Partition of India (1947), the anti-Sikh riots (1984), the Babri Masjid demolition (1992), and the Gujarat riots (2002). In recent years, concerns over growing religious polarization and the use of religion in politics have drawn national and international scrutiny.<ref>Human Rights Watch. (2023). India: Religious Freedom Concerns Persist. Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org</ref>

'''Caste and Social Stratification'''

Traditional [[caste system]] structures, primarily associated with Hindu society but also influencing other communities, continue to impact Indian social life despite legal abolishment. The Constitution prohibits untouchability and provides affirmative action (reservation) for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes in education, employment, and political representation.<ref>National Commission for Scheduled Castes. (2024). Retrieved from https://ncsc.nic.in/</ref>

The rise of social reform movements and increased access to education have contributed to the weakening of caste-based discrimination in urban areas, but rural regions often retain hierarchical structures. Efforts by reformers like [[Dr. B.R. Ambedkar]] and movements such as Dalit Buddhism continue to seek greater equality and dignity for marginalized communities.

'''Role of Religion in Daily Life'''

Festivals, rituals, and pilgrimages are deeply embedded in Indian society. Major events like the [[Kumbh Mela]]—the largest human gathering on Earth—illustrate the scale of religious devotion.<ref>https://www.ptinews.com/story/national/maha-kumbh-begins-in-prayagraj-nearly-60-lakh-devotees-take-holy-dip/2197596</ref>

Religious identity often overlaps with social customs, including marriage, diet (such as vegetarianism), dress codes, and community organization. Religion also intersects with politics, media, education, and even law, especially in matters like personal law, where different religious communities follow separate civil codes related to marriage, divorce, inheritance, and adoption.

== See Also ==

* [[~~Geography of India~~]]

* [[Mughal Empire]]

* [[~~History of~~ India]]

* [[British East India Company]]

* [[~~Indian Economy~~]]

* [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]

* [[~~Indian Freedom Struggle~~]]

* [[Delhi Sultanate]]

* [[States and Union Territories of India]]

@@ Line 215: / Line 215: @@
 Moreover, India is facing increased ''droughts'', ''floods'', ''cyclones'', and ''vector-borne diseases'' due to climate variability. Cities like '''Chennai''' are projected to see a twofold increase in annual heatwave days by 2030.<ref name="urbanheat">The Hindu, "Heatwave Trends in Indian Cities", June 2025.</ref> Rising sea levels threaten low-lying regions such as the '''Sundarbans''', '''Ghoramara Island''', and coastal megacities, with over 35% of the population residing within 100 km of the coast.<ref name="searise1">UNEP Report, "South Asia Coastal Risk Map", 2024.</ref> In response, India has expanded its ''National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)'' and launched the Bharat Forecasting System in 2025 to improve extreme weather prediction, while also undertaking new adaptation initiatives like the '''MISHTI''' mangrove restoration project.<ref name="policy2025">Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), "India's Climate Adaptation Strategy 2025", June 2025.</ref>
-== Government and Politics ==
+'''Biodiversity'''
-India is a '''federal parliamentary republic''', governed by the [[Constitution of India]]. The President is the ceremonial head of state, while the Prime Minister leads the government. The Parliament consists of the [[Lok Sabha]] (House of the People) and [[Rajya Sabha]] (Council of States).
+India is a megadiverse country, one among 17 nations worldwide with exceptional biological diversity and significant numbers of endemic species.<ref>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/2041-210X.13705.</ref> It is home to 8.6% of global mammals, 13.7% of birds, 7.9% of reptiles, 6% of amphibians, 12.2% of fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plants.<ref>GBIF, “India biodiversity statistics”, 2024.</ref> Nearly one-third of India’s plant species are endemic.<ref>https://bsi.gov.in/annual-reports-of-bsi/en.</ref>
-== Economy ==
+India contains four of the world's 34 biodiversity hotspots: the Western Ghats, Indo–Burma, Himalaya, and parts of the Sundaland biome (in Andaman and Nicobar Islands).<ref>https://www.conservation.org/</ref>
-India’s economy ranks among the top 5 globally by nominal GDP. It is diverse, with major contributions from:
-* Information Technology (IT)
-* Agriculture
-* Manufacturing
-* Pharmaceuticals
-* Space and Atomic research
-== Culture ==
+The country’s densest forests—such as the tropical moist forests of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and Northeast India—cover approximately 3% of its land area.<ref>https://fsi.nic.in/forest-report-2023</ref> Moderately dense forests (40–70% canopy cover), which include temperate coniferous forests in the Himalayas, moist deciduous sal forests of eastern India, and dry deciduous teak forests of central and southern India, cover about 9.4% of the land area.<ref>FSI, 2023.</ref> There are also two natural thorn forest zones: one in the Deccan Plateau east of the Western Ghats, and another in the irrigated regions of the western Indo–Gangetic Plain.<ref>Champion & Seth, 1968.</ref>
-India’s cultural legacy is seen in its food, festivals, languages, music, clothing, and cinema. It is home to [[Bollywood]], one of the world’s largest film industries. Every region has its own folk traditions, crafts, and customs.
+Notable native trees include [[Azadirachta indica]] (neem), widely used in traditional medicine, and [[Ficus religiosa]] (peepul), revered in culture and religion since ancient times, even appearing on seals from Mohenjo-daro and linked to stories of the Buddha's enlightenment.<ref>Michael, A. Ethnobotany of India, 2021.</ref><refhttps://www.cambridgescholars.com/product/978-1-5275-8833-2.</ref>
+Several Indian species are remnants of Gondwanan lineages, while others arrived after India’s collision with Eurasia. This geological mixing resulted in low mammal endemism (12.6%) but high levels among reptiles (45.8%) and amphibians (55.8%).<ref>Meiri et al., Global Reptile Endemism, 2022.</ref> Endemic species include the vulnerable hooded leaf monkey and the threatened Beddome's toad, both found in the Western Ghats.<ref>IUCN Red List, 2024.</ref><ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330134545_Herpetofaunal_survey_in_rainforest_remnants_of_the_Western_Ghats_India.</ref>
+India hosts 172 IUCN‑designated threatened animal species (~2.9% of global threatened fauna). These include the Bengal tiger and Ganges river dolphin (endangered), and critically endangered species such as the gharial, great Indian bustard, and white‑rumped vulture, which has suffered due to diclofenac poisoning in cattle carcasses.<ref>IUCN Red List, 2024.</ref><ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/378610298_AGRICULTURE_FOOD_e-Newsletter_Causes_and_consequences_of_vulture_decline_in_India_and_the_world</ref> Historical habitats like Punjab's thorn forests and grasslands, once home to blackbuck and Asiatic cheetah, have been largely converted to agriculture; blackbuck are now endangered, and cheetah is extinct in India.<ref>Khurana et al., Wildlife of Punjab, 2022.</ref>
+To preserve wildlife, India has significantly strengthened its conservation framework. National parks and protected areas—first established in 1935—expanded dramatically, especially after the 1972 Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger, complemented by the 1980 Forest Conservation Act.<ref>Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), 2023.</ref><ref>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/pan3.10177</ref> Presently, India manages 500+ wildlife sanctuaries, 18 biosphere reserves (four in the World Network), and 89 Ramsar wetlands.<ref>UNESCO Biosphere Reserves, 2024.</ref><ref>Ramsar Convention, 2024.</ref>
+India’s biodiversity—rich yet threatened—is now being supported by renewed efforts in protected area management, community-based conservation, and species recovery programs aimed at balancing ecological integrity with sustainable development.
+=='''Politics and government'''==
+India is a [[federal parliamentary republic]], where power is shared between the [[Union government]] in New Delhi and state governments across 28 states and 8 union territories.<ref>Government of India, Constitution of India, 1950.</ref> The President of India serves as the ceremonial head of state, while the Prime Minister is the head of government and exercises executive authority.<ref>https://mpa.gov.in/.</ref> The [[Parliament of India]] is bicameral, comprising the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People), with representatives elected every five years.<refhttps://www.eci.gov.in/eci-backend/public/api/download?url=LMAhAK6sOPBp%2FNFF0iRfXbEB1EVSLT41NNLRjYNJJP1KivrUxbfqkDatmHy12e%2FztfbUTpXSxLP8g7dpVrk7%2FUZO%2FRM8%2BpHWJVE21FjUm4%2BeU4yXpAjiBqWC6EDPgOw6dOFtn933icz0MOeiesxvsQ%3D%3D</ref>
+State governments have their own legislative assemblies and, in some states, legislative councils. Chief Ministers—elected by the legislative assemblies—serve as the heads of state governments under the symbolic authority of Governors appointed by the President.<ref>Constitution of India, Articles 155–167.</ref>
+India follows a multiparty democratic system. The dominant national parties include the [[Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)]] and the [[Indian National Congress]] (INC), along with regional parties such as the [[Trinamool Congress]], [[Aam Aadmi Party]], and [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK)]].<ref>https://adrindia.org/</ref>
+The judiciary is independent, with the [[Supreme Court of India]] at its apex, followed by High Courts at the state level and subordinate courts below. The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review and serves as the final authority on constitutional matters.<ref>https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s3ec0490f1f4972d133619a60c30f3559e/uploads/2024/11/2024112991.pdf.</ref>
+India’s constitution guarantees a range of rights, including fundamental rights (e.g., equality, freedom of speech, and religion) and Directive Principles of State Policy, which serve as guidelines for governance.<ref>Constitution of India, Chapters III & IV.</ref> It also provides reservation quotas for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes in education and government jobs to ensure social equity.<ref>Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Report on Reservations 2024.</ref>
+Elections at the Union and State levels are overseen by the [[Election Commission of India]], an autonomous body established to ensure free and fair elections using Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter-Verified Paper Audit Trails (VVPAT).<ref>https://www.eci.gov.in/annual-audit-reports.</ref>
+India’s political landscape includes diverse institutions and mechanisms for accountability, such as the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG), the Central Vigilance Commission (CVC), and the Right to Information Act (RTI), enacted in 2005 to promote transparency.<ref>https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s380537a945c7aaa788ccfcdf1b99b5d8f/uploads/2024/07/202407041095928324.pdf.</ref>
+At the international level, India's foreign policy is shaped by its non-aligned history, strategic partnerships, and growing role in global forums such as [[BRICS]], [[G20]], [[QUAD]], and the United Nations.<ref>https://www.mea.gov.in/Annual_Reports.htm?dtl/38005/Annual_Report_20232024</ref>
+=='''Government'''==
+India operates as a '''sovereign socialist secular democratic republic''' governed by a '''parliamentary system''' as outlined in the [[Constitution of India]], which came into effect on 26 January 1950.<ref>Government of India. (1950). The Constitution of India. Ministry of Law and Justice. Retrieved from https://legislative.gov.in/constitution-of-india</ref> The [[President of India]] is the formal head of the state and serves primarily ceremonial duties, while real executive power lies with the [[Prime Minister]], who is the head of government and leads the [[Union Council of Ministers]].<ref>President of India. (2024). Role and Functions. Retrieved from https://presidentofindia.nic.in/</ref>
+The Indian government is divided into three main branches: the Executive, the Legislature, and the Judiciary.
+The Executive consists of the [[President]], [[Vice President]], [[Prime Minister]], and the [[Council of Ministers]]. The [[Prime Minister of India]] is appointed by the President and is generally the leader of the majority party or coalition in the [[Lok Sabha]]. The Council of Ministers aids and advises the President in the exercise of their functions.<ref>Press Information Bureau. (2023). Structure of Indian Executive. Retrieved from https://www.pib.gov.in/indexd.aspx</ref>
+The Legislature, known as the [[Parliament of India]], is bicameral and consists of two houses: the [[Rajya Sabha]] (Council of States) and the [[Lok Sabha]] (House of the People). The Lok Sabha is directly elected by the citizens through general elections held every five years, while the Rajya Sabha members are elected by state legislative assemblies or nominated by the President.<ref>Lok Sabha Secretariat. (2024). Functioning of Parliament. Retrieved from https://loksabha.nic.in</ref>
+The Judiciary is independent and is headed by the [[Supreme Court of India]], followed by High Courts in each state and lower courts at district and subordinate levels. The judiciary is entrusted with upholding the Constitution, interpreting laws, and delivering justice. The Supreme Court has the power of [[judicial review]] and is the guardian of fundamental rights.
+India's federal structure divides powers between the Union and the States, detailed in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution under the Union List, State List, and Concurrent List.<ref>Ministry of Law and Justice. (2023). Distribution of Legislative Powers. Retrieved from https://legislative.gov.in/</ref> Each state has its own government with a [[Governor]] as the ceremonial head and a [[Chief Minister]] as the real executive authority.
+India ensures democratic participation through institutions like the [[Election Commission of India]], which conducts free and fair elections at both national and state levels.<ref>Election Commission of India. (2023). Electoral Process in India. Retrieved from https://eci.gov.in</ref> Laws are enforced by civil services and police under the oversight of various ministries and departments, while the legislative oversight is exercised through parliamentary debates, questions, and committees.
+The government also provides reservation policies for [[Scheduled Castes]], [[Scheduled Tribes]], and [[Other Backward Classes]] in education and employment, and has schemes to address poverty, health, education, and social welfare through ministries like the [[Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment]] and the [[Ministry of Rural Development]].<ref>Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. (2024). Annual Report. Retrieved from https://socialjustice.gov.in/</ref>
+=='''Administrative divisions'''==
+India is a [[federal union]] comprising 28 states and 8 union territories. Each state and union territory has its own administrative structure, with division of power between the [[Union government]] and the respective state or territory governments as defined in the [[Constitution of India]].<ref>Government of India. (2024). States and Union Territories. National Portal of India. Retrieved from https://www.india.gov.in/</ref>
+Each [[state]] has its own [[Legislative Assembly]] and an elected [[Chief Minister]] who heads the executive branch, while the [[Governor]] acts as the ceremonial head, appointed by the [[President of India]]. Some states also have a bicameral legislature with a [[Legislative Council]] as the upper house (e.g., Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar, and Telangana).<ref>Ministry of Home Affairs. (2024). States and Their Legislatures. Retrieved from https://xn--i1b5bzbybhfo5c8b4bxh.xn--11b7cb3a6a.xn--h2brj9c/en</ref>
+The [[union territories]] are governed directly by the [[Central Government]] through an appointed [[Lieutenant Governor]] or [[Administrator]]. However, three union territories—[[Delhi]], [[Puducherry]], and [[Jammu and Kashmir]]—have been granted partial statehood, meaning they have elected legislative assemblies and enjoy a greater degree of self-governance.<ref>Election Commission of India. (2023). Delimitation and Governance of UTs. Retrieved from https://www.eci.gov.in/</ref>
+For administrative purposes, states and union territories are further divided into districts (as of 2024, over 775 in total), which are governed by a [[District Collector]] or [[District Magistrate]] appointed from the Indian Administrative Service (IAS). Each district is subdivided into [[tehsils]] or [[talukas]], and further into blocks, towns, and villages.
+''To promote decentralisation, India follows a three-tier system of local self-government:''
+• Gram Panchayats at the village level,
+• Panchayat Samitis at the block level,
+• Zila Parishads at the district level in rural areas, and
+•Municipal Corporations, Municipal Councils, and Nagar Panchayats in urban areas.<ref>Ministry of Panchayati Raj. (2024). Structure and Role of PRIs. Retrieved from https://panchayat.gov.in</ref>
+This administrative structure ensures governance and service delivery across a vast and diverse population. '''Article 1''' of the Constitution describes India as a "[[Union of States]]", which signifies that the Indian federation is not the result of an agreement among states, and states do not have the right to secede.<ref>Constitution of India. (1950). Article 1. Retrieved from https://legislative.gov.in/</ref>
+=='''Foreign, economic, and strategic relations'''==
+Since gaining independence in 1947, India has pursued a foreign policy rooted in principles of non-alignment and peaceful coexistence. Under [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], India became a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), choosing not to formally align with either the [[United States]] or the Soviet Union during the Cold War.<ref>Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. (2024). India and the Non-Aligned Movement. Retrieved from https://www.mea.gov.in/</ref>
+In the 21st century, India's foreign relations have diversified significantly. It maintains strategic partnerships with major global powers such as the [[United States]], [[Russia]], the European Union, Japan, and increasingly with Australia. India is also an active participant in regional and multilateral platforms such as:
+•'''United Nations''' (UN),
+•'''World Trade Organization''' (WTO),
+•'''South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation''' (SAARC),
+•'''Shanghai Cooperation Organisation''' (SCO),
+•''BRICS'' (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa), and
+•'''Quadrilateral Security Dialogue''' (Quad), alongside the US, Japan, and Australia.<ref>United Nations India. (2023). India's Engagement with the UN. Retrieved from https://india.un.org</ref><ref>MEA India. (2024). India's Strategic Partners. Retrieved from https://www.mea.gov.in/</ref>
+India's immediate neighbourhood policy—Neighbourhood First—prioritises strong diplomatic and economic ties with South Asian countries like [[Nepal]], Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and [[Maldives]]. However, its relationship with [[Pakistan]] has remained tense due to historical conflicts, especially over [[Kashmir]]. Bilateral ties with [[China]] have also been strained by border disputes, notably the 2020 Galwan Valley clash.<ref>Al Jazeera. (2023). India-China Border Tensions Continue. Retrieved from https://www.aljazeera.com</ref>
+Economically, India has emerged as one of the world's fastest-growing major economies. It is a key player in global trade and investment. The government promotes initiatives like [[Make in India]], [[Digital India]], and [[Startup India]] to boost exports, attract foreign investment, and develop high-tech infrastructure.<ref>Ministry of Commerce and Industry. (2024). India’s Economic Diplomacy. Retrieved from https://commerce.gov.in/</ref>
+India is also a major contributor to [[United Nations peacekeeping operations]] and actively promotes global development, South-South cooperation, and climate action. As part of the [[International Solar Alliance]] (ISA), co-founded with France, India is leading global efforts in renewable energy adoption.<ref>International Solar Alliance. (2024). Member Countries. Retrieved from https://isolaralliance.org/</ref>
+Strategically, India maintains one of the largest military forces in the world. It is a ''nuclear weapons state'' and operates a tri-service command structure—''Indian Army'', ''Indian Navy'', and ''Indian Air Force''. India is also expanding its influence in the ''Indo-Pacific'' region through naval cooperation and maritime security dialogues.<ref>Global Firepower Index. (2024). India Military Ranking 2024. Retrieved from https://www.globalfirepower.com/</ref>
+India’s foreign policy today balances its historic values of peaceful diplomacy with its contemporary ambitions of becoming a regional and global power.
+'''Economy'''
+The '''Economy of India''' is a '''mixed economy'''—featuring both public and private sector participation—ranking as the fifth-largest in the world by nominal GDP and the third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP) as of 2024.<ref>International Monetary Fund. (April 2024). World Economic Outlook Database. Retrieved from https://www.imf.org/en/Home</ref> With an average GDP growth rate of 6–7% over the past decade, India is one of the fastest-growing major economies globally.
+The Indian economy has undergone significant transformation since the 1991 economic liberalization, when reforms opened up the country to foreign investment, privatization, and reduced trade barriers. These changes led to a surge in sectors like information technology, telecommunications, banking, and pharmaceuticals.<ref>World Bank. (2023). India Country Overview. Retrieved from https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/india</ref>
+Today, India's economy is broadly divided into:
+•Agriculture, which employs around 43% of the workforce but contributes less than 18% to GDP;
+•Industry, including manufacturing, construction, and energy, contributing about 25% to GDP;
+•Services sector, which is the largest contributor at over 55% of GDP, including IT, finance, and education.<ref>Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI), Government of India. (2024). GDP Sectoral Composition. Retrieved from https://mospi.gov.in/</ref>
+India is a global leader in IT and software services, with cities like Bengaluru, [[Hyderabad]], and [[Pune]] hosting major tech firms. Tata Consultancy Services (TCS), Infosys, and Wipro are among the top global IT service providers.<ref>NASSCOM. (2024). Indian IT Sector Outlook. Retrieved from https://nasscom.in/</ref>
+The country also has a robust financial system, with institutions like the [[Reserve Bank of India]] (RBI) playing a central role in monetary policy and regulation. The Mumbai Stock Exchange (BSE) and the National Stock Exchange (NSE) are among the largest stock exchanges in the world by market capitalization.<ref>RBI Annual Report 2023-24. Retrieved from https://www.rbi.org.in/</ref>
+India's agricultural output ranks second globally and it is a major exporter of rice, spices, cotton, tea, and sugar. Government schemes like PM-KISAN, eNAM, and the Minimum Support Price (MSP) system aim to support farmers and improve rural incomes.<ref>Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare. (2024). Retrieved from https://agriwelfare.gov.in/</ref>
+The country is also a major player in the manufacturing sector, particularly through the government's flagship '''Make in India''' initiative, which encourages both domestic and foreign companies to manufacture in India. Industrial corridors, SEZs, and infrastructure projects are accelerating this growth.<ref>Make in India. (2024). Retrieved from https://www.makeinindia.com</ref>
+''Foreign Direct Investment'' (FDI) inflows into India reached over $85 billion in 2023–24, with major investments in fintech, e-commerce, real estate, and renewable energy.<ref>Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT). (2024). Retrieved from https://dpiit.gov.in</ref>
+The Indian government has also launched transformative initiatives such as:
+''Digital India'' – promoting digital infrastructure and internet access,
+''Startup India'' – supporting entrepreneurship and innovation,
+''Atmanirbhar Bharat'' – aimed at making India self-reliant in key sectors.
+India is a major energy consumer, dependent on oil imports but also expanding rapidly in renewable energy. It ranks fourth in the world for installed renewable energy capacity, driven by initiatives under the International Solar Alliance and domestic solar/wind projects.<ref>International Energy Agency (IEA). (2024). India Energy Outlook. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org</ref>
+''Despite the progress, India faces challenges such as:''
+• high unemployment among youth,
+• rural-urban economic disparity,
+• inflationary pressures,
+•infrastructure gaps.
+However, with its young population, growing middle class, and strong entrepreneurial ecosystem, India is expected to remain a key driver of global economic growth in the coming decades.
+=='''''Culture'''''==
+The '''Culture of India''' is one of the world's oldest and most diverse, shaped by a long history of regional, linguistic, religious, and ethnic multiplicity. It reflects a rich tapestry of traditions, spiritual philosophies, literature, art, and social norms that have evolved over thousands of years. Indian culture has had a significant influence on regions across Asia, the Middle East, and even parts of Europe, particularly through the spread of religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism via the Silk Road and maritime trade.<ref>https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/lekl125.pdf</ref>
+'''Religion and Spirituality'''
+India is the birthplace of several major world religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. It is also home to substantial populations of Muslims, Christians, Zoroastrians, Jews, and Baháʼís. Religious diversity and tolerance have historically been integral to Indian society, though interfaith dynamics have sometimes led to tensions.<ref>Government of India, Ministry of Minority Affairs. (2024). Religious Communities in India. Retrieved from https://minorityaffairs.gov.in</ref>
+'''Languages and Literature'''
+India recognizes 22 official languages under the Eighth Schedule of the [[Constitution of India]], with [[Hindi]] in the Devanagari script as the official language of the central government and English as an associate official language.<ref>Ministry of Home Affairs. (2024). Language Policy. Retrieved from https://www.mha.gov.in</ref> Major regional languages include Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, and Kannada.
+India has a vast literary heritage, with ancient texts such as the ''Vedas'', ''Upanishads'', ''Ramayana'', and ''Mahabharata''. Classical literature in ''Sanskrit'', ''Tamil'', and ''Pali'' flourished alongside regional traditions. In modern times, authors like ''Rabindranath Tagore'', ''Premchand'', ''R.K. Narayan'', ''Arundhati Roy'', and ''Salman Rushdie'' have gained international recognition.<ref>India's Ministry of Culture. (2024). Literary Heritage of India. Retrieved from https://www.indiaculture.nic.in</ref>
+'''Art and Architecture'''
+India boasts a broad spectrum of art forms, from the cave paintings of ''Ajanta'' and ''Ellora'' to contemporary installations. Major schools of painting include ''Mughal miniature'', ''Rajput'', and ''Madhubani'' styles. Sculpture and temple architecture have evolved under dynasties like the ''Maurya'', ''Chola'', and [[Mughal Empire]], with iconic structures such as the [[Taj Mahal]], ''Khajuraho temples'', and ''Konark Sun Temple''.<ref>Archaeological Survey of India. (2024). Retrieved from https://asi.nic.in</ref>
+'''Performing Arts'''
+India's performing arts encompass a rich tradition of ''classical music'', ''dance'', and ''theatre''. Classical dance forms include ''Bharatanatyam'', ''Kathak'', ''Odissi'', ''Kuchipudi'', and ''Manipuri'', each with deep roots in temple rituals and storytelling.<ref>Sangeet Natak Akademi. (2024). Classical Dance and Music Traditions of India. Retrieved from https://sangeetnatak.gov.in/</ref>
+Classical music is broadly categorized into the ''Hindustani'' tradition of the north and the ''Carnatic'' style of the south. Popular music includes genres like ''Bollywood music'', ''Indipop'', ''folk music'', and ''fusion''.
+'''Cinema and Media'''
+India has the largest film industry in the world by volume, with thousands of movies produced annually in languages like Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, and Bengali. Bollywood, centered in Mumbai, is internationally renowned. Indian cinema has gained global acclaim through filmmakers such as Satyajit Ray, Rajkumar Hirani, and SS Rajamouli.
+India is also a leader in media production, with an expansive network of television, radio, and digital content across multiple languages. News and entertainment channels reach hundreds of millions daily.
+'''Cuisine'''
+Indian cuisine is known for its diverse flavors, aromatic spices, and regional variation. Staple ingredients include rice, lentils, wheat, spices like ''turmeric'', ''cardamom'', and ''cumin'', and herbs such as ''coriander'' and ''mint''. Regional cuisines such as ''Punjabi'', ''South Indian'', ''Gujarati'', ''Bengali'', and ''Kashmiri'' offer unique flavors and cooking techniques.<ref>Ministry of Tourism, Government of India. (2024). Incredible India – Cuisine. Retrieved from https://www.incredibleindia.gov.in/en</ref>
+Indian food has a vast international following, with Indian restaurants and culinary traditions influencing global gastronomy.
+'''Festivals and Traditions'''
+''India celebrates a multitude of religious and cultural festivals, including:''
+•'''Diwali''' (Festival of Lights),
+•'''Holi''' (Festival of Colors),
+•'''Eid al-Fitr''',
+•'''Christmas''',
+•'''Navratri''',
+•'''Pongal''',
+•'''Onam'''.
+These festivals are marked by music, dance, rituals, and community gatherings, often blending religious devotion with social celebration.<ref>Press Information Bureau. (2024). Indian Festivals and Celebrations. Retrieved from https://www.pib.gov.in/indexd.aspx</ref>
 == Religion and Society ==
-India is a secular nation with a pluralistic society. Major religions include [[Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Christianity]], [[Sikhism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]]. The Indian Constitution guarantees freedom of religion and cultural expression.
+[[India]] is one of the most religiously diverse nations in the world, home to all major world religions and many indigenous faiths. The country has no official state religion, and the [[Constitution of India]] declares it a secular state, guaranteeing freedom of religion under ''Article 25'' and prohibiting discrimination on religious grounds.<ref>Government of India. (2024). Constitution of India – Article 25. Retrieved from https://legislative.gov.in/</ref>
+India is the birthplace of four of the world's major religions — ''Hinduism'', ''Buddhism'', ''Jainism'', and ''Sikhism'' — and continues to be a significant center of spiritual and religious activity. Hinduism is practiced by around 79.8% of the population, followed by Islam (14.2%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.7%), Buddhism (0.7%), and Jainism (0.4%), according to the 2011 Census.<ref>Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. (2011). Census of India – Religious Composition. Retrieved from https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/</ref>
+Despite its constitutional commitment to secularism, religion plays a central role in Indian public and private life. Temples, mosques, churches, gurdwaras, and monasteries serve not only as places of worship but also as centers for education, healthcare, and community service.
+'''Religious Harmony and Conflict'''
+India has a long tradition of religious pluralism and syncretism. Cities like Varanasi, Amritsar, and Ajmer have served as religious melting pots for centuries. Sufi and Bhakti movements historically promoted interfaith harmony, stressing devotion over ritual and dogma.<ref>https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Past_as_Present/zLrFvQEACAAJ?hl=en</ref>
+However, the country has also witnessed episodes of religious violence and tension. Notable incidents include the Partition of India (1947), the anti-Sikh riots (1984), the Babri Masjid demolition (1992), and the Gujarat riots (2002). In recent years, concerns over growing religious polarization and the use of religion in politics have drawn national and international scrutiny.<ref>Human Rights Watch. (2023). India: Religious Freedom Concerns Persist. Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org</ref>
+'''Caste and Social Stratification'''
+Traditional [[caste system]] structures, primarily associated with Hindu society but also influencing other communities, continue to impact Indian social life despite legal abolishment. The Constitution prohibits untouchability and provides affirmative action (reservation) for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes in education, employment, and political representation.<ref>National Commission for Scheduled Castes. (2024). Retrieved from https://ncsc.nic.in/</ref>
+The rise of social reform movements and increased access to education have contributed to the weakening of caste-based discrimination in urban areas, but rural regions often retain hierarchical structures. Efforts by reformers like [[Dr. B.R. Ambedkar]] and movements such as Dalit Buddhism continue to seek greater equality and dignity for marginalized communities.
+'''Role of Religion in Daily Life'''
+Festivals, rituals, and pilgrimages are deeply embedded in Indian society. Major events like the [[Kumbh Mela]]—the largest human gathering on Earth—illustrate the scale of religious devotion.<ref>https://www.ptinews.com/story/national/maha-kumbh-begins-in-prayagraj-nearly-60-lakh-devotees-take-holy-dip/2197596</ref>
+Religious identity often overlaps with social customs, including marriage, diet (such as vegetarianism), dress codes, and community organization. Religion also intersects with politics, media, education, and even law, especially in matters like personal law, where different religious communities follow separate civil codes related to marriage, divorce, inheritance, and adoption.
 == See Also ==
-* [[Geography of India]]
+* [[Mughal Empire]]
-* [[History of India]]
+* [[British East India Company]]
-* [[Indian Economy]]
+* [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]
-* [[Indian Freedom Struggle]]
+* [[Delhi Sultanate]]
 * [[States and Union Territories of India]]