Hinduism: Difference between revisions

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| motto = "Truth is one, paths are many" (Ekam Sat Vipra Bahudha Vadanti)

| website =

}}'''Hinduism''' is one of the ~~world’s~~ oldest religions~~, originating~~ in the Indian subcontinent ~~around 1500 BCE or earlier. It is a complex~~, ~~diverse~~, and ~~pluralistic tradition with no single founder or unified scripture~~. Hinduism is the third-largest religion ~~in the world~~, with over a billion adherents~~, primarily~~ in [[India]] and [[Nepal]].

}}'''Hinduism''' (Sanskrit: हिन्दू धर्म, Hindū Dharma), also called Sanātana Dharma ("eternal religion") or Vaidika Dharma ("religion of the Vedas"), is one of the oldest and most complex religions in the world. It began in the Indian subcontinent and has changed over thousands of years by blending various cultural, spiritual, and philosophical traditions. Today, Hinduism is the third-largest religion globally, with over 1.2 billion followers. Most adherents are in [[India]] and [[Nepal]], but there are also significant communities in Bangladesh, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Mauritius, Fiji, the Caribbean, and among the global Indian diaspora.<ref>Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press, 1996.</ref><ref>Doniger, Wendy. The Hindus: An Alternative History. Penguin Press, 2009.</ref>

~~== Beliefs and Philosophy ==~~

Hinduism is not a single, unified belief system. Instead, it is a collection of religious, cultural, and philosophical traditions. It doesn’t have one founder, one scripture, or a set of beliefs that everyone accepts. Instead, it includes a range of practices, from philosophical schools like Vedanta and Yoga to popular devotional traditions such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism. Hinduism acknowledges many deities, but it also allows for monotheism, polytheism, pantheism, monism, and atheism within its beliefs..<ref>Rinehart, Robin. Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice. ABC-CLIO, 2004.</ref>

Hinduism is ~~centered around key~~ philosophical ~~concepts~~ such as:

* '''Dharma''' – righteous duty ~~or moral~~ order

At its center, Hindu thought focuses on the pursuit of dharma (ethical duty and order), karma (the law of cause and effect), samsāra (the cycle of rebirth), and moksha (freedom from the cycle of birth and death). These ideas, along with the four purusharthas (life goals: dharma, artha, kama, moksha), form the moral and spiritual foundation of Hindu life.<ref>Klostermaier, Klaus K. A Survey of Hinduism. SUNY Press, 2007.</ref>

* '''Karma''' – law of cause and effect

* '''Samsara''' – cycle of ~~birth, death~~, and ~~rebirth~~

* '''Moksha''' – liberation from the cycle of ~~rebirth~~

~~Hindus believe in a supreme reality called '''Brahman'''~~, which ~~is eternal~~ and ~~formless but manifests through deities like [[Brahma]]~~, ~~[[Vishnu]]~~, ~~and [[Shiva]]~~.

==Etymology==

The term Hindu comes from the ancient Sanskrit word Sindhu, which refers to the Indus River and its nearby area. The Persians, who lived to the northwest of the Indus Valley, pronounced the initial "s" as "h," so they called the people of the region Hindus.<ref>Thapar, Romila. The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Penguin, 2003.</ref> Greek records, such as those of Megasthenes, also mention the term "Indoi" to describe the inhabitants of India

~~== Sacred Texts ==~~

The word [[Hinduism]] is fairly modern. It first appeared in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. British colonial writers and Orientalist scholars used it to group the various religious traditions of India under one label.<ref>Lorenzen, David N. "Who Invented Hinduism?" Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 41, no. 4, 1999, pp. 630–659.</ref> Prior to this, followers described their faith using terms such as Sanātana Dharma ("the eternal religion") and Vaidika Dharma ("the religion of the Vedas").

~~Hindu scriptures are broadly divided into:~~

* '''~~Shruti''' –~~ "~~that which is heard~~"~~, including the four [[Vedas]] and the [[Upanishads]]~~

==Definitions==

* '''~~Smriti''' – "that which is remembered", including the [[Ramayana]]~~, ~~[[Mahabharata]]~~, ~~and the [[Puranas]]~~

Hinduism is often called a '''"way of life"''' rather than a single organized religion. Scholars have struggled to give it a precise definition because of its pluralistic and decentralized nature.<ref>Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press, 1996.</ref>

~~The [[Bhagavad Gita]], a part~~ of the ~~Mahabharata, is among~~ the ~~most revered~~ texts.

* Some define Hinduism as the set of religious traditions that accept the authority of the Vedas (the earliest sacred texts of India).<ref>Klostermaier, Klaus K. A Survey of Hinduism. SUNY Press, 2007.</ref>

== ~~Major Denominations~~ ==

* Others see it as the '''cultural and spiritual practices''' of the Indian subcontinent that continued even before the '''Vedic period'''.<ref>Doniger, Wendy. The Hindus: An Alternative History. Penguin Press, 2009.</ref>

Hinduism ~~includes~~ several major ~~sects~~:

* The Indian Supreme Court has described Hinduism as “a way of life and nothing more.”<ref>Supreme Court of India, Shastri Yagnapurushdasji v. Muldas Bhudardas Vaishya, AIR 1966 SC 1119.</ref>

Because of its inclusiveness, Hinduism is not limited by rigid dogma. A person may worship '''Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti''', or no deity at all and still be considered Hindu, as long as they participate in the larger cultural, philosophical, and ethical traditions of Hindu society.

==History of Hinduism==

The history of Hinduism spans over 4,000 years, making it one of the oldest continuous religions in the world. Scholars divide its development into several phases: the Pre-Vedic (Indus Valley Civilization), the Vedic period, the Epic and Classical period, the Medieval period, and the Modern and Contemporary period. Each phase added unique philosophical, cultural, and devotional aspects that shaped what we now know as Hinduism.<ref>Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press, 1996.</ref><ref>Thapar, Romila. The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Penguin, 2003.</ref>

==Pre-Vedic Period (c. 2500–1500 BCE)==

The earliest roots of Hinduism can be traced back to the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), which thrived between 2500 and 1500 BCE in what is now Pakistan and northwestern India. Archaeological evidence from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro indicates a complex society with ritual practices that likely influenced later Hindu traditions.

* Seals depicting yogic postures suggest an early form of meditation or proto-Yoga.<ref>Marshall, John. Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization. Asian Educational Services, 1996.</ref>

* Figurines of a mother goddess indicate the worship of fertility deities, possibly linked to later Shaktism.

* Symbols resembling the proto-Shiva "Pashupati" seal show a horned deity seated in a yogic pose, often associated by scholars with Lord Shiva.<ref>Parpola, Asko. Deciphering the Indus Script. Cambridge University Press, 1994.</ref>

Although there is no conclusive evidence that the religion of the Indus Valley people was directly continuous with later Hinduism, many scholars argue for cultural and ritual continuity between the Indus Valley and the Vedic religion that followed.

==Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE)==

The Vedic period began with the migration of Indo-Aryan peoples into the Indian subcontinent. They composed the Vedas, the earliest sacred texts of Hinduism, written in archaic Sanskrit.

* The '''Rigveda, the oldest of the Vedas''' (c. 1500 BCE), contains hymns to deities such as ''Indra'' (god of thunder and war), ''Agni'' (fire god), ''Varuna'' (cosmic order), and ''Soma'' (sacred ritual drink).<ref>Jamison, Stephanie W., and Joel P. Brereton. The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India. Oxford University Press, 2014.</ref>

* Rituals centered on ''yajña (sacrificial fire rituals)'', conducted by priests (Brahmins) to maintain cosmic and social order (ṛta).

* The social order began to crystallize, laying the foundation of the ''varna system'' (fourfold social division).

Toward the later Vedic period, speculative philosophical texts called the '''Upanishads''' emerged (c. 800–500 BCE). They shifted focus from ritual sacrifice to self-realization, '''Brahman''' (ultimate reality), and Ātman (self). This marked the beginning of Vedanta philosophy, which remains central to Hindu thought.<ref>Olivelle, Patrick. The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation. Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref>

==Epic and Classical Period (c. 500 BCE – 500 CE)==

This era saw the rise of major epics, philosophical systems, and devotional traditions that are central to Hinduism today.

* The '''Mahabharata''', composed between 400 BCE and 400 CE, is one of the longest epics in the world. It contains the '''Bhagavad Gita''', a dialogue between '''Krishna and Arjuna''' that blends bhakti (devotion), karma (action), and jnana (knowledge) as paths to liberation.<ref>Johnson, W. J. The Bhagavad Gita. Oxford University Press, 1994.</ref>

* The '''Ramayana''', around 500 BCE to 100 CE, tells the story of Lord Rama, representing the victory of dharma over adharma (righteousness over unrighteousness).<ref>Goldman, Robert P. The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India. Princeton University Press, 1984.</ref>

* The '''Dharmashastras''', especially '''Manusmriti''', established social and legal norms that shaped Hindu law and ethics..<ref>Olivelle, Patrick. Manu's Code of Law: A Critical Edition and Translation of the Mānava-Dharmaśāstra. Oxford University Press, 2005.</ref>

Six classical schools of Hindu philosophy, known as darshanas, emerged during this period: '''Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta.'''<ref>Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy, Vol. 2. Oxford University Press, 1927.</ref>

This period also saw the rise of bhakti movements that focused on personal devotion to deities like '''Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi''', forming the basis for later sectarian traditions.

==Medieval Period (c. 500–1500 CE)==

In the medieval era, Hinduism underwent major changes driven by regional kingdoms, temple culture, and interactions with Buddhism, Jainism, and later Islam.

* Temple worship became central, with grand temples built in Khajuraho, Konark, and Tamil Nadu.<ref>Lorenzen, David N. Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action. SUNY Press, 1995.</ref>

* The Bhakti movement thrived, stressing love and devotion to a personal god instead of ritual or caste. Saints like Ramakrishna, Kabir, Mirabai, Tulsidas, and Basava transformed Hindu spirituality

* Key philosophical advancements took place in Vedanta, especially through thinkers like Adi Shankaracharya (Advaita Vedanta – non-dualism), Ramanuja (Vishishtadvaita – qualified non-dualism), and Madhva (Dvaita – dualism).<ref>Potter, Karl H. Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Vol. III: Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils. Motilal Banarsidass, 1981.</ref>

* Hinduism coexisted with [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], often absorbing and merging their ideas.

With the arrival of Islamic rule in India, from the Delhi Sultanate to the Mughal Empire, Hinduism faced challenges but adapted. This led to the development of mixed traditions like the Sant movement.

==Modern Period (c. 1500 CE – Present)==

The modern era brought colonialism, reform, and globalization.

* '''Colonial Encounters''': British colonial scholars systematized Hindu traditions, often creating the category of "Hinduism" as a unified religion.<ref>Lorenzen, David. "Who Invented Hinduism?" Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 41, no. 4, 1999.</ref>

* '''Reform Movements''': Leaders like Raja Ram Mohan Roy (Brahmo Samaj), Swami Dayananda Saraswati (Arya Samaj), Swami Vivekananda, and Mahatma Gandhi sought to reinterpret Hinduism for modern times.<ref>Sarma, Deepak. Hinduism: A Reader. Wiley-Blackwell, 2008.</ref>

* '''Nationalism and Hindu Identity''': Hindu symbols and epics became central to Indian nationalism during the independence struggle.

* '''Global Spread''': In the 20th and 21st centuries, Hinduism spread worldwide through migration, yoga, meditation, and organizations like ISKCON (International Society for Krishna Consciousness).<ref>Bryant, Edwin. The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate. Oxford University Press, 2001.</ref>

* Today, Hinduism continues to evolve, balancing traditional practices with modern values of secularism, pluralism, and scientific inquiry.

==Scriptures==

Hinduism is often described as a religion of texts. Unlike many world religions that have a single holy book, Hinduism has an extensive and diverse body of sacred literature, composed over thousands of years in Sanskrit and regional languages. These scriptures are traditionally classified into two broad categories: Śruti ("that which is heard") and Smṛti ("that which is remembered").<ref>Klostermaier, Klaus K. A Survey of Hinduism. SUNY Press, 2007.</ref><ref>Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press, 1996.</ref>

'''''Śruti (Heard Revelation)'''''

Śruti texts are viewed as divinely revealed and eternal. Ancient sages, known as rishis, perceived them through deep meditation. These texts hold authority and are central to Hindu philosophy and practice.

'''The Vedas'''

The Vedas are the oldest and most revered scriptures of Hinduism, composed between 1500 and 500 BCE in Vedic Sanskrit. There are four Vedas:

* '''Rigveda''', the earliest Veda, consists of over 1,000 hymns (suktas) dedicated to deities such as Indra, Agni, and Varuna. It offers insight into early Indo-Aryan culture and religion.<ref>Jamison, Stephanie W., and Joel P. Brereton. The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India. Oxford University Press, 2014.</ref>

* '''Samaveda''', a collection of chants and melodies, primarily comes from the Rigveda. It is used in rituals and sacrifices.<ref>Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press, 1996.</ref>

* '''Yajurveda''' contains prose mantras and ritual instructions for priests during sacrificial ceremonies.<ref>Griffith, Ralph T.H. The Texts of the White Yajurveda. Sacred Books of the East, 1899.</ref>

* '''Atharvaveda''' includes hymns, spells, and incantations that address everyday concerns like health, prosperity, and protection.<ref>Whitney, William Dwight. Atharva-Veda Samhita. Harvard Oriental Series, 1905.</ref>

''Each Veda has four subdivisions:''

- '''Samhitas''' (hymn collections)

- '''Brahmanas''' (ritual instructions)

- '''Aranyakas''' (forest texts for meditation)

- '''Upanishads''' (philosophical discussions)

The Vedas are considered apauruṣeya, which means they are not of human origin. They form the foundation of Hindu thought.

'''''The Upanishads'''''

The Upanishads, dating from around 800 to 500 BCE, mark a shift from ritual sacrifice to philosophical inquiry. Often referred to as the “end of the Vedas” (Vedanta), they investigate ultimate reality (Brahman), the self (Atman), and liberation (moksha).<ref>Olivelle, Patrick. The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation. Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref>

''Key Upanishads include:''

* Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of the oldest, discusses Atman, Brahman, and the unity of existence.

* Chandogya Upanishad is famous for the teaching Tat Tvam Asi, which means “Thou art That.” This signifies the identity of the individual self with ultimate reality.

* Katha Upanishad includes a dialogue between Nachiketa and Yama, the god of death. They discuss the nature of the soul.

* Mundaka Upanishad explains higher and lower knowledge and introduces the idea of renunciation.

The Upanishads laid the foundation for Vedanta philosophy, later developed by Shankaracharya, Ramanuja, and Madhva.

* '''Vaishnavism''' – worship of Vishnu and his avatars like Krishna and Rama

* '''Shaivism''' – worship of Shiva

* '''Shaktism''' – worship of the goddess (Shakti or Devi)

* '''Smartism''' – liberal worship of five major deities

~~Each tradition has its unique practices, philosophies, and scriptures.~~

== Practices ==

@@ Line 25: / Line 25: @@
 | motto       = "Truth is one, paths are many" (Ekam Sat Vipra Bahudha Vadanti)
 | website     =
-}}'''Hinduism''' is one of the world’s oldest religions, originating in the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BCE or earlier. It is a complex, diverse, and pluralistic tradition with no single founder or unified scripture. Hinduism is the third-largest religion in the world, with over a billion adherents, primarily in [[India]] and [[Nepal]].
+}}'''Hinduism''' (Sanskrit: हिन्दू धर्म, Hindū Dharma), also called Sanātana Dharma ("eternal religion") or Vaidika Dharma ("religion of the Vedas"), is one of the oldest and most complex religions in the world. It began in the Indian subcontinent and has changed over thousands of years by blending various cultural, spiritual, and philosophical traditions. Today, Hinduism is the third-largest religion globally, with over 1.2 billion followers. Most adherents are in [[India]] and [[Nepal]], but there are also significant communities in Bangladesh, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Mauritius, Fiji, the Caribbean, and among the global Indian diaspora.<ref>Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press, 1996.</ref><ref>Doniger, Wendy. The Hindus: An Alternative History. Penguin Press, 2009.</ref>
-== Beliefs and Philosophy ==
+Hinduism is not a single, unified belief system. Instead, it is a collection of religious, cultural, and philosophical traditions. It doesn’t have one founder, one scripture, or a set of beliefs that everyone accepts. Instead, it includes a range of practices, from philosophical schools like Vedanta and Yoga to popular devotional traditions such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism. Hinduism acknowledges many deities, but it also allows for monotheism, polytheism, pantheism, monism, and atheism within its beliefs..<ref>Rinehart, Robin. Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice. ABC-CLIO, 2004.</ref>
-Hinduism is centered around key philosophical concepts such as:
-* '''Dharma''' – righteous duty or moral order
+At its center, Hindu thought focuses on the pursuit of dharma (ethical duty and order), karma (the law of cause and effect), samsāra (the cycle of rebirth), and moksha (freedom from the cycle of birth and death). These ideas, along with the four purusharthas (life goals: dharma, artha, kama, moksha), form the moral and spiritual foundation of Hindu life.<ref>Klostermaier, Klaus K. A Survey of Hinduism. SUNY Press, 2007.</ref>
-* '''Karma''' – law of cause and effect
-* '''Samsara''' – cycle of birth, death, and rebirth
-* '''Moksha''' – liberation from the cycle of rebirth
-Hindus believe in a supreme reality called '''Brahman''', which is eternal and formless but manifests through deities like [[Brahma]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Shiva]].
+==Etymology==
+The term Hindu comes from the ancient Sanskrit word Sindhu, which refers to the Indus River and its nearby area. The Persians, who lived to the northwest of the Indus Valley, pronounced the initial "s" as "h," so they called the people of the region Hindus.<ref>Thapar, Romila. The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Penguin, 2003.</ref>  Greek records, such as those of Megasthenes, also mention the term "Indoi" to describe the inhabitants of India
-== Sacred Texts ==
+The word [[Hinduism]] is fairly modern. It first appeared in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. British colonial writers and Orientalist scholars used it to group the various religious traditions of India under one label.<ref>Lorenzen, David N. "Who Invented Hinduism?" Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 41, no. 4, 1999, pp. 630–659.</ref> Prior to this, followers described their faith using terms such as Sanātana Dharma ("the eternal religion") and Vaidika Dharma ("the religion of the Vedas").
-Hindu scriptures are broadly divided into:
-* '''Shruti''' – "that which is heard", including the four [[Vedas]] and the [[Upanishads]]
+==Definitions==
-* '''Smriti''' – "that which is remembered", including the [[Ramayana]], [[Mahabharata]], and the [[Puranas]]
+Hinduism is often called a '''"way of life"''' rather than a single organized religion. Scholars have struggled to give it a precise definition because of its pluralistic and decentralized nature.<ref>Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press, 1996.</ref>
-The [[Bhagavad Gita]], a part of the Mahabharata, is among the most revered texts.
+* Some define Hinduism as the set of religious traditions that accept the authority of the Vedas (the earliest sacred texts of India).<ref>Klostermaier, Klaus K. A Survey of Hinduism. SUNY Press, 2007.</ref>
-== Major Denominations ==
+* Others see it as the '''cultural and spiritual practices''' of the Indian subcontinent that continued even before the '''Vedic period'''.<ref>Doniger, Wendy. The Hindus: An Alternative History. Penguin Press, 2009.</ref>
-Hinduism includes several major sects:
+* The Indian Supreme Court has described Hinduism as “a way of life and nothing more.”<ref>Supreme Court of India, Shastri Yagnapurushdasji v. Muldas Bhudardas Vaishya, AIR 1966 SC 1119.</ref>
+Because of its inclusiveness, Hinduism is not limited by rigid dogma. A person may worship '''Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti''', or no deity at all and still be considered Hindu, as long as they participate in the larger cultural, philosophical, and ethical traditions of Hindu society.
+==History of Hinduism==
+The history of Hinduism spans over 4,000 years, making it one of the oldest continuous religions in the world. Scholars divide its development into several phases: the Pre-Vedic (Indus Valley Civilization), the Vedic period, the Epic and Classical period, the Medieval period, and the Modern and Contemporary period. Each phase added unique philosophical, cultural, and devotional aspects that shaped what we now know as Hinduism.<ref>Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press, 1996.</ref><ref>Thapar, Romila. The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Penguin, 2003.</ref>
+==Pre-Vedic Period (c. 2500–1500 BCE)==
+The earliest roots of Hinduism can be traced back to the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), which thrived between 2500 and 1500 BCE in what is now Pakistan and northwestern India. Archaeological evidence from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro indicates a complex society with ritual practices that likely influenced later Hindu traditions.
+* Seals depicting yogic postures suggest an early form of meditation or proto-Yoga.<ref>Marshall, John. Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization. Asian Educational Services, 1996.</ref>
+* Figurines of a mother goddess indicate the worship of fertility deities, possibly linked to later Shaktism.
+* Symbols resembling the proto-Shiva "Pashupati" seal show a horned deity seated in a yogic pose, often associated by scholars with Lord Shiva.<ref>Parpola, Asko. Deciphering the Indus Script. Cambridge University Press, 1994.</ref>
+Although there is no conclusive evidence that the religion of the Indus Valley people was directly continuous with later Hinduism, many scholars argue for cultural and ritual continuity between the Indus Valley and the Vedic religion that followed.
+==Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE)==
+The Vedic period began with the migration of Indo-Aryan peoples into the Indian subcontinent. They composed the Vedas, the earliest sacred texts of Hinduism, written in archaic Sanskrit.
+* The '''Rigveda, the oldest of the Vedas''' (c. 1500 BCE), contains hymns to deities such as ''Indra'' (god of thunder and war), ''Agni'' (fire god), ''Varuna'' (cosmic order), and ''Soma'' (sacred ritual drink).<ref>Jamison, Stephanie W., and Joel P. Brereton. The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India. Oxford University Press, 2014.</ref>
+* Rituals centered on ''yajña (sacrificial fire rituals)'', conducted by priests (Brahmins) to maintain cosmic and social order (ṛta).
+* The social order began to crystallize, laying the foundation of the ''varna system'' (fourfold social division).
+Toward the later Vedic period, speculative philosophical texts called the '''Upanishads''' emerged (c. 800–500 BCE). They shifted focus from ritual sacrifice to self-realization, '''Brahman''' (ultimate reality), and Ātman (self). This marked the beginning of Vedanta philosophy, which remains central to Hindu thought.<ref>Olivelle, Patrick. The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation. Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref>
+==Epic and Classical Period (c. 500 BCE – 500 CE)==
+This era saw the rise of major epics, philosophical systems, and devotional traditions that are central to Hinduism today.
+* The '''Mahabharata''', composed between 400 BCE and 400 CE, is one of the longest epics in the world. It contains the '''Bhagavad Gita''', a dialogue between '''Krishna and Arjuna''' that blends bhakti (devotion), karma (action), and jnana (knowledge) as paths to liberation.<ref>Johnson, W. J. The Bhagavad Gita. Oxford University Press, 1994.</ref>
+* The '''Ramayana''', around 500 BCE to 100 CE, tells the story of Lord Rama, representing the victory of dharma over adharma (righteousness over unrighteousness).<ref>Goldman, Robert P. The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India. Princeton University Press, 1984.</ref>
+* The '''Dharmashastras''', especially '''Manusmriti''', established social and legal norms that shaped Hindu law and ethics..<ref>Olivelle, Patrick. Manu's Code of Law: A Critical Edition and Translation of the Mānava-Dharmaśāstra. Oxford University Press, 2005.</ref>
+Six classical schools of Hindu philosophy, known as darshanas, emerged during this period: '''Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta.'''<ref>Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy, Vol. 2. Oxford University Press, 1927.</ref>
+This period also saw the rise of bhakti movements that focused on personal devotion to deities like '''Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi''', forming the basis for later sectarian traditions.
+==Medieval Period (c. 500–1500 CE)==
+In the medieval era, Hinduism underwent major changes driven by regional kingdoms, temple culture, and interactions with Buddhism, Jainism, and later Islam.
+* Temple worship became central, with grand temples built in Khajuraho, Konark, and Tamil Nadu.<ref>Lorenzen, David N. Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action. SUNY Press, 1995.</ref>
+* The Bhakti movement thrived, stressing love and devotion to a personal god instead of ritual or caste. Saints like Ramakrishna, Kabir, Mirabai, Tulsidas, and Basava transformed Hindu spirituality
+* Key philosophical advancements took place in Vedanta, especially through thinkers like Adi Shankaracharya (Advaita Vedanta – non-dualism), Ramanuja (Vishishtadvaita – qualified non-dualism), and Madhva (Dvaita – dualism).<ref>Potter, Karl H. Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Vol. III: Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils. Motilal Banarsidass, 1981.</ref>
+* Hinduism coexisted with [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], often absorbing and merging their ideas.
+With the arrival of Islamic rule in India, from the Delhi Sultanate to the Mughal Empire, Hinduism faced challenges but adapted. This led to the development of mixed traditions like the Sant movement.
+==Modern Period (c. 1500 CE – Present)==
+The modern era brought colonialism, reform, and globalization.
+* '''Colonial Encounters''': British colonial scholars systematized Hindu traditions, often creating the category of "Hinduism" as a unified religion.<ref>Lorenzen, David. "Who Invented Hinduism?" Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 41, no. 4, 1999.</ref>
+* '''Reform Movements''': Leaders like Raja Ram Mohan Roy (Brahmo Samaj), Swami Dayananda Saraswati (Arya Samaj), Swami Vivekananda, and Mahatma Gandhi sought to reinterpret Hinduism for modern times.<ref>Sarma, Deepak. Hinduism: A Reader. Wiley-Blackwell, 2008.</ref>
+* '''Nationalism and Hindu Identity''': Hindu symbols and epics became central to Indian nationalism during the independence struggle.
+* '''Global Spread''': In the 20th and 21st centuries, Hinduism spread worldwide through migration, yoga, meditation, and organizations like ISKCON (International Society for Krishna Consciousness).<ref>Bryant, Edwin. The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate. Oxford University Press, 2001.</ref>
+* Today, Hinduism continues to evolve, balancing traditional practices with modern values of secularism, pluralism, and scientific inquiry.
+==Scriptures==
+Hinduism is often described as a religion of texts. Unlike many world religions that have a single holy book, Hinduism has an extensive and diverse body of sacred literature, composed over thousands of years in Sanskrit and regional languages. These scriptures are traditionally classified into two broad categories: Śruti ("that which is heard") and Smṛti ("that which is remembered").<ref>Klostermaier, Klaus K. A Survey of Hinduism. SUNY Press, 2007.</ref><ref>Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press, 1996.</ref>
+'''''Śruti (Heard Revelation)'''''
+Śruti texts are viewed as divinely revealed and eternal. Ancient sages, known as rishis, perceived them through deep meditation. These texts hold authority and are central to Hindu philosophy and practice.
+'''The Vedas'''
+The Vedas are the oldest and most revered scriptures of Hinduism, composed between 1500 and 500 BCE in Vedic Sanskrit. There are four Vedas:
+* '''Rigveda''', the earliest Veda, consists of over 1,000 hymns (suktas) dedicated to deities such as Indra, Agni, and Varuna. It offers insight into early Indo-Aryan culture and religion.<ref>Jamison, Stephanie W., and Joel P. Brereton. The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India. Oxford University Press, 2014.</ref>
+* '''Samaveda''', a collection of chants and melodies, primarily comes from the Rigveda. It is used in rituals and sacrifices.<ref>Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press, 1996.</ref>
+* '''Yajurveda''' contains prose mantras and ritual instructions for priests during sacrificial ceremonies.<ref>Griffith, Ralph T.H. The Texts of the White Yajurveda. Sacred Books of the East, 1899.</ref>
+* '''Atharvaveda''' includes hymns, spells, and incantations that address everyday concerns like health, prosperity, and protection.<ref>Whitney, William Dwight. Atharva-Veda Samhita. Harvard Oriental Series, 1905.</ref>
+''Each Veda has four subdivisions:''
+- '''Samhitas''' (hymn collections)
+- '''Brahmanas''' (ritual instructions)
+- '''Aranyakas''' (forest texts for meditation)
+- '''Upanishads''' (philosophical discussions)
+The Vedas are considered apauruṣeya, which means they are not of human origin. They form the foundation of Hindu thought.
+'''''The Upanishads'''''
+The Upanishads, dating from around 800 to 500 BCE, mark a shift from ritual sacrifice to philosophical inquiry. Often referred to as the “end of the Vedas” (Vedanta), they investigate ultimate reality (Brahman), the self (Atman), and liberation (moksha).<ref>Olivelle, Patrick. The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation. Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref>
+''Key Upanishads include:''
+* Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of the oldest, discusses Atman, Brahman, and the unity of existence.
+* Chandogya Upanishad is famous for the teaching Tat Tvam Asi, which means “Thou art That.” This signifies the identity of the individual self with ultimate reality.
+* Katha Upanishad includes a dialogue between Nachiketa and Yama, the god of death. They discuss the nature of the soul.
+* Mundaka Upanishad explains higher and lower knowledge and introduces the idea of renunciation.
+The Upanishads laid the foundation for Vedanta philosophy, later developed by Shankaracharya, Ramanuja, and Madhva.
-* '''Vaishnavism''' – worship of Vishnu and his avatars like Krishna and Rama
-* '''Shaivism''' – worship of Shiva
-* '''Shaktism''' – worship of the goddess (Shakti or Devi)
-* '''Smartism''' – liberal worship of five major deities
-Each tradition has its unique practices, philosophies, and scriptures.
 == Practices ==