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'''India''', officially the '''Republic of India''', is a country located in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by land area, the most populous nation in the world, and the largest democracy. India shares land borders with [[Pakistan]], [[China]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]], [[Bangladesh]], and [[Myanmar]], and maritime borders with [[Sri Lanka]] and the [[Maldives]].
'''India''' officially the '''Republic of India''', is a country in South Asia. It is the '''seventh-largest country''' in the world by land area and, since 2023, the '''most populous country''', with over '''1.4 billion people'''.<ref>https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/sites/www.un.org.development.desa.pd/files/wpp2022_summary_of_results.pdf</ref> Since its independence in 1947, India has been known as the world's '''largest democracy'''.<ref>https://www.scirp.org/reference/referencespapers?referenceid=1133498.</ref>


India is renowned for its deep cultural heritage, spiritual philosophies, and contributions to science, mathematics, arts, and literature. It is the birthplace of major world religions including [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Sikhism]].
India is surrounded by the Indian Ocean in the south, the Arabian Sea to the west, and the Bay of Bengal to the east. It shares land borders with [[Pakistan]] to the west, [[China]], [[Nepal]], and [[Bhutan]] to the north, and [[Bangladesh]] and [[Myanmar]] to the east. The island nations of [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Maldives]] lie nearby in the Indian Ocean, and India's [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] are situated close to [[Thailand]], [[Myanmar]], and [[Indonesia]].


== Etymology ==
Modern humans reached the Indian subcontinent from Africa at least 55,000 years ago.<ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334656526_David_Reich_Who_We_Are_and_How_We_Got_Here_Ancient_DNA_and_the_New_Science_of_the_Human_Past_Oxford_Oxford_University_Press_2018_xxxi_and_335pp_28_illustr_pbk_ISBN_978-0-19-882126-7.</ref> This long history gave rise to deep social and cultural diversity. Farming communities began around the Indus Valley more than 9,000 years ago, eventually forming the Indus Valley Civilisation—one of the world’s oldest urban cultures.<ref>Thapar, Romila. ''Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300''. Penguin Books, 2003.</ref>
The word "India" is derived from the River Indus. In ancient times, it was referred to as 'Bharat', which remains the country’s native name.


== Historical Overview ==
Around 1200 BCE, an early form of [[Sanskrit]] entered the subcontinent through the northwest and merged with local traditions. This marked the beginning of [[Hinduism]].<ref>Witzel, Michael. "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools." Harvard University, 1997.</ref> India also saw the birth of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] in the 6th century BCE, which rejected caste and stressed nonviolence and spiritual liberation.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jainism</ref>
India’s history spans over 5,000 years — from the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] to the Vedic age, Maurya and Gupta Empires, [[Delhi Sultanate]], [[Mughals]], and finally British colonial rule. India gained independence on [[15 August 1947]] under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi and several national heroes.


== Government and Politics ==
Between the 7th and 15th centuries, religions such as Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism became established along India’s western and southern coasts.<ref>The Hindu, "How religions came to India", 2020.</ref> In the north, successive [[Delhi Sultanates]] and later the [[Mughal Empire]] brought major political changes and Islamic influence in culture, art, and architecture.<ref>https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/mughal-empire/25DE4321AB17CA0AD34D13675B9C52F6</ref>
India is a '''federal parliamentary republic''', governed by the [[Constitution of India]]. The President is the ceremonial head of state, while the Prime Minister leads the government. The Parliament consists of the [[Lok Sabha]] (House of the People) and [[Rajya Sabha]] (Council of States).


== Geography ==
In the south, the Vijayanagara Empire promoted a vibrant Hindu cultural revival and maritime trade with Southeast Asia.<ref>https://www.routledge.com/A-History-of-India/Kulke-Rothermund/p/book/9781138961159?srsltid=AfmBOooJSExjTZ9uyYWYxf1AI2sLr3P1xsC2oMEkfOOUor9qknUfmU8w.</ref> Meanwhile, [[Sikhism]] emerged in the 15th century in the [[Punjab]] region, promoting equality and community service.
India’s geography includes the Himalayas in the north, the Indo-Gangetic plains, the [[Thar Desert]] in the west, the tropical coastline in the south, and dense forests in the northeast. The country has a wide variety of ecosystems and biodiversity.


== Economy ==
In the 17th century, the [[British East India Company]] gradually expanded its control over Indian territories. After the [[Revolt of 1857]], British Crown rule was formally established in 1858. Although India experienced some modern reforms, it remained a colony until 1947.
India’s economy ranks among the top 5 globally by nominal GDP. It is diverse, with major contributions from:
* Information Technology (IT)
* Agriculture
* Manufacturing
* Pharmaceuticals
* Space and Atomic research


== Culture ==
The Indian [[freedom movement]], led by leaders like [[Mahatma Gandhi]], [[Bhagat singh]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], [[Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel]]<ref>https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/top-famous-freedom-fighters-of-india-1737527201-1</ref>,  used nonviolent resistance to demand self-rule.<ref>Gandhi, M.K. ''The Story of My Experiments with Truth''.</ref> India became independent in 1947, but the country was partitioned into two nations—India and Pakistan—which led to mass migrations and violence.<ref>https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300230321/the-great-partition/</ref>
India’s cultural legacy is seen in its food, festivals, languages, music, clothing, and cinema. It is home to [[Bollywood]], one of the world’s largest film industries. Every region has its own folk traditions, crafts, and customs.
 
India became a sovereign democratic republic in 1950 with a parliamentary system and a federal structure. It has emerged as one of the world’s fastest-growing major economies.<ref>International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook 2024</ref> Key industries include information technology, space research, agriculture, and manufacturing. India is also a major [[nuclear power]] and a space-faring nation through [[ISRO]].<ref>https://www.isro.gov.in/AnnualReports.html</ref>
 
India is a pluralistic, multi-ethnic, and multilingual society, with 22 official languages and hundreds of regional languages. Its population has grown from 361 million in 1951 to over 1.4 billion in 2023.<ref>https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/</ref>
 
Poverty has significantly declined, but economic inequality remains a major challenge. India also continues to face air pollution, gender inequality, and child malnutrition.<ref>Thttps://journals.lww.com/pmrr/fulltext/2024/01060/epidemiology_of_double_burden_of_malnutrition_.6.aspx</ref> India ranks high in military expenditure and maintains complex relations with [[China]] and Pakistan, particularly over Kashmir.<ref>Al Jazeera, "India-China Border Disputes", 2023</ref>
 
Despite challenges, India’s culture, including Bollywood, classical music, yoga, and spiritual traditions, has found influence across the globe.
 
=='''''Etymology'''''==
 
The name '''India''' comes from the Latin word ''India'', which itself came from the Greek ''Indía'' (Ἰνδία), referring to the land beyond the Indus River.<ref>https://www.oed.com/dictionary/india_n?tl=true</ref> The Ancient Greeks used the word ''Indos'' (Ἰνδός) for the Indus River, and called its people ''Indoi''—"people of the Indus".<ref>Boesche, Roger. ''The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra''. Lexington Books, 2002.</ref> This name passed into Old Persian as ''Hindush'', which was the name of a province in the Achaemenid Empire. The word comes from the [[Sanskrit]] word ''Sindhu'', meaning 'river', especially referring to the Indus.<ref>Thapar, Romila. ''The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300''. Penguin Books, 2003.</ref>
 
'''Bharat''' (or ''Bhārat'') is another official name for India, mentioned in ancient Indian epics like the ''Mahabharata'' and also in the [[Constitution of India]].<ref>https://www.constitutionofindia.net/articles/article-1-name-and-territory-of-the-union/</ref> The name is a modern version of ''Bharatavarsha'', which originally meant the northern region of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>Sharma, R.S. ''India's Ancient Past''. Oxford University Press, 2005.</ref> From the 19th century, ''Bharat'' became widely used by Indians as a national name.<ref>https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/India/HJAB6r3fKY8C?hl=en</ref>
 
'''Hindustan''' is another historical name, first used in Middle Persian to refer to the land of the Indus. It became common during the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and [[Mughal Empire]], referring mainly to [[North India]], but was also used for the whole subcontinent at times.<ref>https://archive.org/details/muzaffar-alam-the-languages-of-political-islam-india-1200-1800-university-of-chicago-press-2004</ref>
 
=='''''Historical Overview'''''==
==Ancient India==
 
By about 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans (''Homo sapiens'') arrived in the Indian subcontinent from Africa<ref>https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/essential-timeline-understanding-evolution-homo-sapiens-180976807/</ref>. The oldest modern human fossils in South Asia date to around 30,000 years ago.
 
By 6500 BCE, agricultural communities appeared at Mehrgarh (now in Pakistan), showing early domestication of crops and animals, permanent houses, and grain storage<ref>https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/global-prehistory-ap/paleolithic-mesolithic-neolithic-apah/a/the-neolithic-revolution</ref><ref>Dyson, Tim. Migration of Homo sapiens; Archaeological Survey of India, 2025</ref>. Between 2500–1900 BCE, these societies evolved into the Indus Valley Civilisation, one of the world’s earliest urban cultures, with major cities like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan<ref>Cambridge Univ. Press: Archaeology of South Asia, 2015</ref><ref>Penn Museum on Indus maritime trade</ref>. This civilisation excelled in agriculture, crafts (such as bead making and bronze tools), standardised weights, urban drainage, and extensive trade—including with Mesopotamia via seals and beads<ref>Penn Museum: Shipping and Maritime Trade</ref><ref>https://www.harappa.com/content/trade-and-technology-indus-valley</ref>.
 
From 2000–500 BCE, much of the subcontinent transitioned to the Iron Age. The '''Vedas''', ancient hymns linked to early [[Hinduism]], were composed in this era<ref>Witzel, Michael, Harvard University, 1997</ref>. Historians also identify several waves of Indo‑Aryan migration into the northwest<ref>Encyclopaedia Britannica: Vedic Period</ref>. It was during this time that an early ''caste system'', categorising society into hierarchical groups, took shape<ref>Thapar, Romila. '''Early India''</ref>.
 
On the Deccan Plateau, small kingdoms or chiefdoms emerged, while in South India, the appearance of megalithic monuments alongside evidence of farming and craft production indicates settled societies around 1000 BCE<ref>ASI: South India Megaliths, 2023</ref>.
 
By the 6th century BCE, larger political entities known as ''mahajanapadas'' formed in the Ganges and northwest regions<ref>Fisher, Michael H. Ancient Raj Migrations, 2010</ref>. Simultaneously, the non-Vedic religions [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] emerged, emphasising spiritual equality, renunciation, and monastic living<ref>https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jainism</ref>.
 
In the early 3rd century BCE, the Maurya Empire—originating from Magadha—unified much of northern and central India under rulers like Ashoka, who promoted Buddhist dhamma and public administration<ref>https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Mughal_Empire/HHyVh29gy4QC?hl=en</ref><ref>https://panmacmillan.co.in/authors/ramachandra-guha/india-after-gandhi/9781035014729/</ref>.
 
Between 200 BCE–200 CE, the Sangam literature describes South Indian kingdoms—the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas—which traded widely with the Roman Empire and Southeast Asia<ref>Kulke & Rothermund. A History of India, 2016</ref>. In the north, patriarchal norms strengthened, reducing the social standing of women<ref>https://www.academia.edu/35119630/Sakuntala_Narasimhan_Empowering_Women_An_Alternative_Strategy_From_Rural_India</ref>.
 
By the 4th–5th centuries CE, the Gupta Empire dominated the Ganges region, establishing systems of governance and taxation that influenced future states. The period is noted for the flourishing of classical Sanskrit literature, science, mathematics, medicine, art, and architecture<ref>Thapar, Romila. Early India, 2003</ref>.
 
== Medieval India==
 
The early medieval period of India, from 600 to 1200 CE, was marked by the rise of regional kingdoms and significant cultural diversity.<ref>https://www.furkatingcollege.edu.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/History-of-Early-India-From-the-Origins-to-AD-1300_Thapar.pdf</ref>
 
'''King Harsha of Kannauj''' ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, but failed to expand his empire beyond north India. His southern campaign was stopped by the Chalukya dynasty of the Deccan, while his eastern ambitions were blocked by the Pala dynasty of Bengal.<ref>Keay, John. India: A History. HarperCollins, 2000.</ref> Likewise, when the Chalukyas tried to move further south, they were resisted by the Pallavas, who themselves faced opposition from the '''Pandyas''' and the emerging '''Chola''' dynasty.<ref>https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.16035.</ref>
 
No single kingdom during this period could maintain control over lands outside their core territories.<ref>https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-making-of-early-medieval-india-second-edition-9780198077251?cc=in&lang=en&</ref> Pastoral communities, displaced by expanding agriculture, were absorbed into the growing caste system. New rulers, often from non-traditional backgrounds, were integrated as new castes, leading to regional variations in caste practices.<ref>https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/caste-society-and-politics-in-india-from-the-eighteenth-century-to-the-modern-age/097D56E007498073B691A17EC3441FEB</ref>
 
In the 6th and 7th centuries, devotional poetry known as the bhakti movement began in Tamil. These hymns, composed by saints like the Alvars and Nayanars, became popular across India, sparking a revival in [[Hinduism]] and shaping the modern Indian languages.<ref>https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/An_Introduction_to_Hinduism/KpIWhKnYmF0C?hl=en</ref>
 
During this period, [[temples]] became not only religious centres but also economic and social hubs. Royal patronage led to the growth of temple towns across the subcontinent, contributing to a new wave of urbanisation.<ref>https://www.furkatingcollege.edu.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/A-History-of-India-2nd-ed.pdf</ref>
 
South Indian influence also spread outside India during the 8th and 9th centuries. Indian culture, religion, and political ideas were transmitted to [[Southeast Asia]], influencing areas in today's [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Malaysia]].<ref>Coedès, George. The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press, 1968.</ref> This was achieved through merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies, while local Southeast Asian rulers also came to India to learn and translate religious texts.<ref>https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/catalog/606605</ref>
 
In the late 10th century, Central Asian Muslim clans, united by ethnicity and religion, invaded northwest India with swift horse-based armies, leading to the establishment of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in 1206 CE.<ref>Jackson, Peter. The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge University Press, 1999.</ref> Though initially disruptive, the sultans allowed non-Muslim subjects to follow their own laws and customs.<ref>https://dokumen.pub/al-hind-the-making-of-the-indo-islamic-world-volume-1-early-medieval-india-and-the-expansion-of-islam-7th-11th-centuries-0391041738-9780391041738.html</ref>
 
By resisting Mongol invasions in the 13th century, the Delhi Sultanate saved India from destruction experienced in West and Central Asia, encouraging the migration of scholars, soldiers, artists, and mystics to India, which contributed to a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture.<ref>https://books.google.co.in/books?id=1hCn0AEACAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en&source=newbks_fb&redir_esc=y.</ref>
 
The sultanate's weakening of South Indian kingdoms made way for the Vijayanagara Empire, which embraced Shaivism and adapted military technology from the Delhi rulers. The empire controlled most of peninsular India, leaving a lasting influence on South Indian culture, religion, and architecture.<ref>Sewell, Robert. A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar. Asian Educational Services, 2000.</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.16035</ref>
 
== '''''Early Modern India ''''' ==
 
==16th Century==
In the early 16th century, northern India, which had been ruled by a series of [[Delhi Sultanate]] dynasties, fell to a new group of Central Asian conquerors.<ref>https://docdrop.org/ocr/download/baburnama----320-61-rdkef_ocr.pdf.</ref> These warriors, led by Babur, a descendant of both Timur and Genghis Khan, invaded India using gunpowder-based artillery and highly mobile cavalry.<ref>https://docdrop.org/ocr/download/baburnama----320-61-rdkef_ocr.pdf.</ref>
 
Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, marking the beginning of the [[Mughal Empire]].<ref>https://vedanga.co.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Medieval-History-Satish-Chandra-1526-1748-Part-2.pdf</ref> Although Babur's rule was short, his successors — most notably Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan — consolidated and expanded the empire during the 16th century.<ref>https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-mughal-state-1526-1750-9780195652253?type=listing&subjectcode1=1793239%7CAHU00010&lang=en&cc=bt.</ref>
 
The Mughal state was one of the most centralised and efficient administrations of its time. Under Akbar, who ruled from 1556 to 1605, the empire expanded across most of North and Central India.<ref>https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-agrarian-system-of-mughal-india-9780198077428?cc=in&lang=en&.</ref> He introduced revenue reforms (such as the Zabt system), supported religious tolerance, and promoted a Persianised court culture that embraced Hindus, Muslims, and other communities.<ref>https://assets.cambridge.org/97811070/26490/frontmatter/9781107026490_frontmatter.pdf.</ref>
 
The Mughal court became a major patron of arts, architecture, and literature, commissioning monuments such as Humayun's Tomb and Fatehpur Sikri during the second half of the 16th century.<ref>https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/architecture-of-mughal-india/AEA97658C4FDEB02FFD6C30B1E31CD70</ref> The empire’s use of a silver-based currency and regulated markets helped stimulate trade and agriculture.<ref>https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-economic-history-of-india/FAE3A6C0264445BBCEB02B5CD0CC2A2F.</ref>
 
During this century, new social and political groups like the [[Rajputs]] were incorporated into the Mughal nobility, while others such as the [[Marathas]] and [[Sikhs]] began to emerge as independent forces.<ref>Gordon, Stewart. The Marathas 1600–1818. Cambridge University Press, 1993.</ref><ref>https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/A_History_of_the_Sikhs_1469_1838/MD9uAAAAMAAJ?hl=en</ref>
 
While the Mughals controlled much of the subcontinent, regional kingdoms such as the Ahom kingdom in the northeast, the Vijayanagara Empire in the south, and various Deccan Sultanates remained powerful players.<ref>https://utppublishing.com/doi/abs/10.3138/cjh.34.3.497.</ref>
 
By the end of the 16th century, India had become one of the most prosperous and populous regions of the world, with flourishing trade networks linking it to West Asia, Europe, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia.<ref>https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/political-economy-of-commerce-southern-india-15001650/9A0C70B89E63940D29B0C93409E97E6A.</ref>
 
==17th Century==
During the 17th century, the [[Mughal Empire]] reached the height of its territorial and economic power. Under [[Emperor Jahangir]] (r. 1605–1627) and [[Shah Jahan]] (r. 1628–1658), the Mughal court became synonymous with opulence, architectural grandeur, and administrative sophistication.<ref>Chandra, Satish. History of Medieval India. Orient BlackSwan, 2007.</ref> The construction of the [[Taj Mahal]], one of the most iconic monuments of India, was completed in 1648 under Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal.<ref>https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Architecture_of_Mughal_India/3ctLNvx68hIC?hl=en.</ref>
 
The empire’s economy, based on agriculture and trade, remained strong. A highly standardised system of taxation and land revenue, known as Zabt, continued to function, and large surpluses allowed the state to support vast armies and elaborate building projects.<ref>https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-agrarian-system-of-mughal-india-9780198077428?cc=in&lang=en&</ref> Indian textiles, particularly cotton and silk, were in high demand across Europe and Southeast Asia, making India a central part of the Indian Ocean trade network.<ref>https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Political_Economy_of_Commerce_Southe/jgSMPKVh7f8C?hl=en</ref>
 
European trading companies like the [[British East India Company]], '''Dutch East India Company''' (VOC), '''French East India Company''', and '''Portuguese Estado da Índia''' began to establish their presence on the Indian coasts during this period.<ref>https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/trading-world-of-asia-and-the-english-east-india-company/86AB2ECE6301348690C3F85C61142BFA</ref> They set up factories (trading posts) in key locations such as Surat,Madras (Chennai), [[Bombay]] (Mumbai), and [[Calcutta]] (Kolkata).<ref>https://academic.oup.com/book/7005</ref>
 
During the reign of Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), the empire expanded to its greatest territorial extent, stretching from the Hindu Kush to the Cauvery River in the south.<ref>https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/mughal-empire/25DE4321AB17CA0AD34D13675B9C52F6.</ref> However, Aurangzeb’s long campaigns in the Deccan, especially against the [[Maratha Empire]], drained the empire’s resources and led to administrative fatigue.<ref>Gordon, Stewart. The Marathas 1600–1818. Cambridge University Press, 1993.</ref> His reimposition of Islamic laws such as the Jizya tax and destruction of some Hindu temples alienated sections of the Hindu population, creating unrest in several regions.<ref>Metcalf, Barbara, and Metcalf, Thomas R. A Concise History of Modern India. Cambridge University Press, 2006.</ref>
 
At the same time, regional powers like the Sikhs in Punjab, the [[Jats]] in the north, and the [[Marathas]] in the Deccan began asserting their autonomy, laying the foundation for the fragmentation of Mughal authority in the 18th century.<ref>Singh, Khushwant. A History of the Sikhs, Volume 1. Oxford University Press, 2004.</ref><ref>https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Indian_Society_and_the_Making_of_the_Bri/fX2zMfWqIzMC?hl=en</ref>
 
Despite these political strains, the 17th century is often considered the golden age of Mughal art, architecture, and commerce, characterised by architectural marvels, court paintings, and literary developments in Persian, Urdu, and Hindavi languages.<ref>https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Mughal_and_Rajput_Painting/0RjwxGMKC9cC?hl=en.</ref>
 
==18th Century==
The 18th century marked the decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of regional powers across the Indian subcontinent. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the empire rapidly weakened due to administrative overreach, prolonged military campaigns, and increasing challenges from both internal rebellions and external forces.<refhttps://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Mughal_Empire/HHyVh29gy4QC?hl=en</ref> The central authority of the emperor diminished as provincial governors (nawabs and subahdars) and military elites declared independence or ruled autonomously while still acknowledging the nominal supremacy of the Mughal court in [[Delhi]].<ref>https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Eighteenth_Century_in_Indian_History/WT1uAAAAMAAJ?hl=en</ref>
 
During this time, the Maratha Confederacy emerged as the most formidable Indian power. Under leaders like Baji Rao I and later Mahadji Shinde, the Marathas extended their influence across large parts of central, western, and northern India.<ref>Gordon, Stewart. The Marathas 1600–1818. Cambridge University Press, 1993.</ref> Their guerrilla warfare techniques, decentralised leadership, and strong cavalry enabled them to challenge Mughal dominance and rival emerging foreign powers.
 
Meanwhile, other regional powers such as the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Kingdom of Mysore, and the Sikh Confederacy in Punjab also asserted autonomy and engaged in state-building activities.<ref>https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Indian_Society_and_the_Making_of_the_Bri/fX2zMfWqIzMC?hl=en</ref><ref>Singh, Khushwant. A History of the Sikhs, Volume 1. Oxford University Press, 2004.</ref>
 
The political instability of this era coincided with the increasing involvement of European trading companies in Indian politics. The [[British East India Company]], having gained a strong foothold in [[Bengal]] after the [[Battle of Plassey]] in 1757 and later the Battle of Buxar in 1764, emerged as the most powerful foreign player.<ref>Marshall, P.J. Bengal: The British Bridgehead. Cambridge University Press, 1987.</ref> These victories enabled the British to establish diwani rights (revenue collection) in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, initiating direct colonial economic control.<ref>Chaudhuri, K.N. The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company 1660–1760. Cambridge University Press, 1978.</ref>
 
While the French East India Company posed a temporary challenge through the military leadership of Joseph François Dupleix and General Lally, their defeat in the Carnatic Wars led to a decisive British supremacy among European powers in India.<ref>Markovits, Claude. A History of Modern India. Anthem Press, 2002.</ref>
 
This period also saw the rise of Indian thinkers and reformers influenced by both traditional learning and the early engagement with European ideas. The weakening of centralised control and shifting political power laid the groundwork for cultural exchange, social reforms, and the beginning of the modern colonial state that would emerge more clearly in the 19th century.<ref>Metcalf, Barbara D., and Metcalf, Thomas R. A Concise History of Modern India. Cambridge University Press, 2006.</ref>
 
==19th Century==
 
During the 19th century, India witnessed the transformation from commercial colonisation under the [[British East India Company]] to direct British Crown rule, and the beginning of modern Indian nationalism. After the ''Anglo-Mysore Wars'' and ''Anglo-Maratha Wars'', the British had effectively subdued most Indian princely states by the early 1800s.<ref>Marshall, P.J. The British in Asia: Trade to Dominion, 1700–1765. Cambridge University Press, 2005.</ref>
 
The turning point came in 1857, with the outbreak of the [[ Revolt of 1857]], also referred to as the First War of Independence by Indian nationalists.<ref>Sarkar, Sumit. Modern India 1885–1947. Macmillan, 1983.</ref> Triggered by discontent among Indian soldiers (sepoys) over cultural insensitivity and growing resentment against British policies, the rebellion spread across '''northern''' and '''central India''', involving both Hindu and Muslim leaders, as well as civilians.<ref>Metcalf, Barbara D., and Metcalf, Thomas R. A Concise History of Modern India. Cambridge University Press, 2006.</ref> Although the revolt was eventually suppressed, it had far-reaching consequences. In 1858, the British Crown assumed direct control over India, formally ending Company rule and inaugurating the period of the '''British Raj'''.<ref>Heath, Ian. The Indian Mutiny: 1857–1858. Osprey Publishing, 2005.</ref>
 
Under the British Raj, India was reorganised into provinces administered by British officials and princely states ruled by Indian kings under British suzerainty. The British introduced railways, telegraphs, modern education, and Western legal systems, which were intended to integrate India into the global capitalist economy while also extending colonial control.<ref>Bayly, C.A. Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press, 1988.</ref> [[Calcutta]], [[Bombay]], and [[Madras]] emerged as major urban centres. English education fostered a new class of Indian intellectuals, including '''Raja Ram Mohan Roy''', '''Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar''', and later ''Swami Vivekananda'', who advocated for social reform, women’s rights, and religious revivalism.<ref>Kejariwal, O.P. The Asiatic Society of Bengal and the Discovery of India's Past, 1784–1838. Oxford University Press, 1988.</ref>
 
Socially, this era was marked by reform movements such as the '''Brahmo Samaj''', '''Arya Samaj''', and efforts to abolish practices like ''sati'', child marriage, and promote widow remarriage.<ref>Sen, Amartya. The Argumentative Indian. Penguin Books, 2005.</ref> Legislation like the '''Widow Remarriage Act of 1856''' and '''Age of Consent Act of 1891''' reflected British involvement in Indian social practices, sometimes welcomed by reformers but also leading to nationalist resistance.
 
Economically, India was turned into a supplier of raw materials and a consumer of British manufactured goods, which caused deindustrialisation of native textile industries, heavy land taxation, and increased rural poverty.<ref>Roy, Tirthankar. The Economic History of India 1857–1947. Oxford University Press, 2006.</ref> Famines, such as the ''Great Famine of 1876–1878'', were exacerbated by British policy prioritising exports over local needs.<ref>Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World. Verso, 2001.</ref>
 
By the late 19th century, Indian political consciousness was rising. The founding of the [[Indian National Congress]] in 1885 provided a national platform for expressing grievances against British rule.<ref>Brown, Judith M. Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy. Oxford University Press, 1994.</ref> Early leaders such as '''Dadabhai Naoroji''', '''Gopal Krishna Gokhale''', and '''Surendranath Banerjee''' focused on petitions, legislative reforms, and increased Indian representation in administration.
 
== 20th Century India ==
 
The 20th century was a turning point in Indian history, as the freedom movement transformed from moderate constitutional demands to a mass-based '''''struggle for independence'''''. The early phase of the century was dominated by the moderate nationalists, who sought reforms and Indian representation in governance. However, after the ''Partition of Bengal (1905)'' by the British, a wave of '''Swadeshi movement|Swadeshi''' and boycott protests emerged, promoting Indian-made goods and rejecting British products.<ref>Metcalf, Barbara D. & Metcalf, Thomas R. A Concise History of Modern India. Cambridge University Press, 2006.</ref>
 
During World War I, over a million Indian soldiers served overseas under the British Army, hoping for political concessions in return. But the '''Rowlatt Act (1919)''', which allowed detention without trial, and the ''Jallianwala Bagh massacre'' shocked the nation, turning public opinion sharply against British rule.<ref>Gandhi, Rajmohan. Gandhi: The Man, His People, and the Empire. University of California Press, 2006.</ref> It was during this time that [[Mahatma Gandhi]] emerged as a mass leader, advocating ''Satyagraha'' (non-violent resistance) and leading nationwide movements like the ''Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)'', ''Salt March (1930)'', and ''Quit India Movement (1942)''.<ref>Brown, Judith M. Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope. Yale University Press, 1989.</ref>
 
Political parties like the [[Indian National Congress]] and ''All India Muslim League'' became more prominent. While Congress pushed for a united India, the Muslim League under ''Muhammad Ali Jinnah'' began advocating for a separate Muslim state, which eventually led to the demand for [[Pakistan]].<ref>Jalal, Ayesha. The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League, and the Demand for Pakistan. Cambridge University Press, 1994.</ref>
 
Britain’s exhaustion after [[World War II]], growing international pressure, and mass civil disobedience led to the eventual withdrawal of the British. On 15 August 1947, '''India gained independence''', but it came with the [[Partition of India]], resulting in the creation of the separate nation of Pakistan. The partition caused widespread violence, the largest mass migration in history, and communal riots between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs, leading to the deaths of hundreds of thousands.<ref>Khuswant Singh. Train to Pakistan. Grove Press, 1956.</ref><ref>Butalia, Urvashi. The Other Side of Silence: Voices from the Partition of India. Penguin Books India, 1998.</ref>
 
The independence era also marked the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi in 1948, by a Hindu extremist, an event that deeply shook the nation.<ref>Lal, Vinay. The Gandhi Murder Trial. University of California, Los Angeles, 2000.</ref>
 
== Post-Independence India (1947–present) ==
 
India became an independent nation on 15 August 1947. The first [[Prime Minister of India]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], took leadership with a vision of a secular, democratic, and socialist country. On 26 January 1950, India adopted its [[Constitution of India]] and officially became a [[Republic of India]], with [[Dr. B. R. Ambedkar]] as the principal architect of the Constitution.<ref>Granville Austin. The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation. Oxford University Press, 1966.</ref>
 
The early years focused on nation-building, with large investments in infrastructure, education, and public sector enterprises. The government promoted a mixed economy model, combining private enterprise with government control over key industries. Nehru also started the Non-Aligned Movement, keeping India independent of Cold War alliances.<ref>Brecher, Michael. Nehru: A Political Biography. Oxford University Press, 1959.</ref>
 
'''India faced major challenges after independence:'''
 
The [[Partition of India]] led to communal violence and the displacement of over 14 million people.<ref>Butalia, Urvashi. The Other Side of Silence. Penguin, 1998.</ref>
 
India integrated over 500 princely states, including controversial cases like ''Hyderabad State'' and ''Jammu and Kashmir'', the latter of which became a long-standing issue between India and Pakistan.<ref>Menon, V.P. The Story of the Integration of the Indian States. Orient Longman, 1956.</ref>
 
India fought several wars:
 
•'''Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948''' over Kashmir
 
•'''Sino-Indian War of 1962''' with China
 
•'''Indo-Pakistani War of 1965'''
 
•''Bangladesh Liberation War'' in 1971, where India helped in the creation of Bangladesh<ref>Raghavan, Srinath. 1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh. Harvard University Press, 2013.</ref>
 
•In 1974, India conducted its first nuclear test in Pokhran, Rajasthan, making it a nuclear power.<ref>Kapur, S. Paul. India’s Nuclear Policy. Stanford University Press, 2008.</ref>
 
•In the 1970s and 1980s, India went through political instability. The [[Emergency (India)|Emergency of 1975–77]], declared by then Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]], suspended civil liberties and censored the press.<ref>Guha, Ramachandra. India After Gandhi. Picador, 2007.</ref> The 1984 assassination of Indira Gandhi by her Sikh bodyguards led to anti-Sikh riots and a major communal crisis.<ref>Brass, Paul R. The Politics of India Since Independence. Cambridge University Press, 1994.</ref>
 
The 1991 economic crisis forced India to adopt liberalisation, ending the Licence Raj and opening up to global markets under Prime Minister ''P. V. Narasimha Rao'' and Finance Minister ''Manmohan Singh''.<ref>Ahluwalia, Montek S. "Economic Reforms in India Since 1991." Journal of Economic Perspectives, 2002.</ref>
 
== 21st Century India ==
 
India entered the 21st century as a rapidly growing ''emerging economy'', marked by progress in information technology, space exploration, and renewable energy. It became one of the world’s fastest-growing economies.<ref>World Bank. India Overview. 2022.</ref> India also launched missions like '''Chandrayaan''' and '''Mangalyaan''' to explore the Moon and Mars.<ref>ISRO. Mission Summaries. 2023.</ref>
 
India continues to face internal challenges such as poverty, corruption, pollution, and religious tensions, but it has also seen major reforms in digital governance, infrastructure, and social welfare schemes.
 
India is now the world's most populous country (as of 2023), a nuclear power, a key player in global diplomacy, and an important member of groups like ''G20'', ''BRICS'', and ''Quad''.<ref>United Nations Population Division. World Population Prospects. 2023.</ref><ref>G20 India. G20 Presidency 2023 Official Website. 2023.</ref>
 
=='''''Geography'''''==
[[India]] accounts for the bulk of the ''Indian subcontinent'', lying atop the ''Indian Plate'', a part of the ''Indo-Australian Plate''.<ref name="plate1">Sclater, J.G. et al., "Plate tectonics and the evolution of the Indian subcontinent", Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 1981.</ref> India's defining geological processes began approximately 75 million years ago when the Indian Plate, originally part of the southern supercontinent ''Gondwana'', began a northeastward drift due to ''seafloor spreading'' in the south-west, and later, the south and southeast.<ref name="plate1" /> Concurrently, the vast Tethyan oceanic crust to its northeast started subducting under the ''Eurasian Plate''. These tectonic forces, driven by convection currents in the Earth's mantle, eventually created the [[Indian Ocean]], thrust the Indian landmass under Eurasia, and gave rise to the [[Himalayas]].<ref name="plate2">Valdiya, K.S. (2001). "Geology of the Indian Subcontinent", Universities Press.</ref> South of the Himalayas, tectonic movement led to the formation of the crescent-shaped ''Indo-Gangetic Plain'', formed by sedimentation from Himalayan rivers.<ref name="plain1">Oldham, R.D. (1893). "Geology of India", Geological Survey of India.</ref> The Indian Plate emerges visibly in the ancient ''Aravalli Range'', extending southwest from the [[Delhi]] Ridge. To the west of the Aravallis lies the ''Thar Desert'', whose eastern expansion is checked by these hills.
 
The stable and oldest part of the Indian Plate remains as Peninsular India, which includes the Deccan Plateau. This region extends northwards to the Satpura Range and the Vindhya Range, which run roughly east–west from the Arabian Sea in Gujarat to the ''Chota Nagpur Plateau'' in Jharkhand.<ref name="peninsula1">Radhakrishna, B.P., "Geological evolution of peninsular India", Journal of the Geological Society of India, 1993.</ref> The plateau, bordered by the ''Western Ghats'' and ''Eastern Ghats'', contains some of the country's oldest rock formations, dating back more than one billion years.<ref name="deccan1">Crawford, M.L., "Precambrian Geology of India", Cambridge University Press, 1998.</ref> India lies entirely in the Northern Hemisphere, between 6°44′ and 35°30′ N latitude and 68°7′ and 97°25′ E longitude.
 
India's total ''coastline'' measures approximately 7,516 km, although a 2024 survey using high-resolution satellite imagery by the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) recalculated the dynamic mainland and island perimeter to be over 11,000 km, factoring in tidal variations and sandbar shifts.<ref name="coast2024">INCOIS Report, "Updated Indian Coastline Mapping with Satellite Data", Ministry of Earth Sciences, 2024.</ref> This includes 5,423 km along Peninsular India and 2,094 km surrounding the ''Andaman and Nicobar Islands'' and ''Lakshadweep. According to hydrographic charts, the mainland coast comprises 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky shores, and 46% mudflats or marshes.<ref name="coastOld">Indian Navy Hydrographic Department, "Coastal Morphology Atlas", 2019.</ref> Prominent rivers with Himalayan origins include the Ganges and the ''Brahmaputra'', both draining into the ''Bay of Bengal''. Tributaries like the ''Yamuna'' and ''Kosi''—the latter prone to flooding due to its low gradient—support dense agriculture.<ref name="rivers1">Central Water Commission, "Major River Basins of India", 2023.</ref> Peninsular rivers like the ''Godavari'', ''Krishna'', ''Mahanadi'', and ''Kaveri'' also flow into the Bay of Bengal, while the ''Narmada'' and ''Tapti'' drain into the Arabian Sea.<ref name="rivers2">Ministry of Jal Shakti, India, "River Atlas", 2023.</ref> The coastline features the ''Rann of Kutch'' in the west and the ''Sundarbans'' delta in the east, the latter shared with ''Bangladesh''.
 
India's climate is profoundly influenced by the ''Himalayas'' and the ''Thar Desert'', which help trigger the ''Southwest monsoon'' between June and October, delivering over 70% of annual rainfall.<ref name="imdp1">India Meteorological Department (IMD), "Climate of India Annual Report", 2024.</ref> The Himalayas block frigid katabatic winds from Central Asia, maintaining warmer winters across the subcontinent.<ref name="climateHimalaya">IMD Climatology Division, 2023.</ref> India features four major climate zones: ''Tropical wet'', ''Tropical dry'', ''Subtropical humid'', and ''Montane''. Since 1901, the average temperature has risen by 0.7 °C, with heatwaves becoming longer and more intense. In May 2025, India recorded widespread pre-monsoon heat with temperatures crossing 44°C in central and northern regions, while states like ''Kerala'' and ''Arunachal Pradesh'' faced unexpected heat surges.<ref name="climate2025a">Times of India, "Extreme Weather in India Linked to Climate Change", June 2025.</ref> ''Climate change in India'' has accelerated the retreat of Himalayan glaciers such as the ''Gangotri Glacier'' and ''Drang-Drung Glacier'', impacting river flows, agriculture, and downstream hydroelectric systems.<ref name="glacier2025">IIT Roorkee Study, "Glacial Retreat in Ladakh", April 2025.</ref> The melting threatens seasonal water availability for millions in the Indo-Gangetic basin.
 
Moreover, India is facing increased ''droughts'', ''floods'', ''cyclones'', and ''vector-borne diseases'' due to climate variability. Cities like '''Chennai''' are projected to see a twofold increase in annual heatwave days by 2030.<ref name="urbanheat">The Hindu, "Heatwave Trends in Indian Cities", June 2025.</ref> Rising sea levels threaten low-lying regions such as the '''Sundarbans''', '''Ghoramara Island''', and coastal megacities, with over 35% of the population residing within 100 km of the coast.<ref name="searise1">UNEP Report, "South Asia Coastal Risk Map", 2024.</ref> In response, India has expanded its ''National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)'' and launched the Bharat Forecasting System in 2025 to improve extreme weather prediction, while also undertaking new adaptation initiatives like the '''MISHTI''' mangrove restoration project.<ref name="policy2025">Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), "India's Climate Adaptation Strategy 2025", June 2025.</ref>
 
'''Biodiversity'''
 
India is a megadiverse country, one among 17 nations worldwide with exceptional biological diversity and significant numbers of endemic species.<ref>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/2041-210X.13705.</ref> It is home to 8.6% of global mammals, 13.7% of birds, 7.9% of reptiles, 6% of amphibians, 12.2% of fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plants.<ref>GBIF, “India biodiversity statistics”, 2024.</ref> Nearly one-third of India’s plant species are endemic.<ref>https://bsi.gov.in/annual-reports-of-bsi/en.</ref>
 
India contains four of the world's 34 biodiversity hotspots: the Western Ghats, Indo–Burma, Himalaya, and parts of the Sundaland biome (in Andaman and Nicobar Islands).<ref>https://www.conservation.org/</ref>
 
The country’s densest forests—such as the tropical moist forests of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and Northeast India—cover approximately 3% of its land area.<ref>https://fsi.nic.in/forest-report-2023</ref> Moderately dense forests (40–70% canopy cover), which include temperate coniferous forests in the Himalayas, moist deciduous sal forests of eastern India, and dry deciduous teak forests of central and southern India, cover about 9.4% of the land area.<ref>FSI, 2023.</ref> There are also two natural thorn forest zones: one in the Deccan Plateau east of the Western Ghats, and another in the irrigated regions of the western Indo–Gangetic Plain.<ref>Champion & Seth, 1968.</ref>
 
Notable native trees include [[Azadirachta indica]] (neem), widely used in traditional medicine, and [[Ficus religiosa]] (peepul), revered in culture and religion since ancient times, even appearing on seals from Mohenjo-daro and linked to stories of the Buddha's enlightenment.<ref>Michael, A. Ethnobotany of India, 2021.</ref><refhttps://www.cambridgescholars.com/product/978-1-5275-8833-2.</ref>
 
Several Indian species are remnants of Gondwanan lineages, while others arrived after India’s collision with Eurasia. This geological mixing resulted in low mammal endemism (12.6%) but high levels among reptiles (45.8%) and amphibians (55.8%).<ref>Meiri et al., Global Reptile Endemism, 2022.</ref> Endemic species include the vulnerable hooded leaf monkey and the threatened Beddome's toad, both found in the Western Ghats.<ref>IUCN Red List, 2024.</ref><ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330134545_Herpetofaunal_survey_in_rainforest_remnants_of_the_Western_Ghats_India.</ref>
 
India hosts 172 IUCN‑designated threatened animal species (~2.9% of global threatened fauna). These include the Bengal tiger and Ganges river dolphin (endangered), and critically endangered species such as the gharial, great Indian bustard, and white‑rumped vulture, which has suffered due to diclofenac poisoning in cattle carcasses.<ref>IUCN Red List, 2024.</ref><ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/378610298_AGRICULTURE_FOOD_e-Newsletter_Causes_and_consequences_of_vulture_decline_in_India_and_the_world</ref> Historical habitats like Punjab's thorn forests and grasslands, once home to blackbuck and Asiatic cheetah, have been largely converted to agriculture; blackbuck are now endangered, and cheetah is extinct in India.<ref>Khurana et al., Wildlife of Punjab, 2022.</ref>
 
To preserve wildlife, India has significantly strengthened its conservation framework. National parks and protected areas—first established in 1935—expanded dramatically, especially after the 1972 Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger, complemented by the 1980 Forest Conservation Act.<ref>Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), 2023.</ref><ref>https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/pan3.10177</ref> Presently, India manages 500+ wildlife sanctuaries, 18 biosphere reserves (four in the World Network), and 89 Ramsar wetlands.<ref>UNESCO Biosphere Reserves, 2024.</ref><ref>Ramsar Convention, 2024.</ref>
 
India’s biodiversity—rich yet threatened—is now being supported by renewed efforts in protected area management, community-based conservation, and species recovery programs aimed at balancing ecological integrity with sustainable development.
 
=='''Politics and government'''==
 
India is a [[federal parliamentary republic]], where power is shared between the [[Union government]] in New Delhi and state governments across 28 states and 8 union territories.<ref>Government of India, Constitution of India, 1950.</ref> The President of India serves as the ceremonial head of state, while the Prime Minister is the head of government and exercises executive authority.<ref>https://mpa.gov.in/.</ref> The [[Parliament of India]] is bicameral, comprising the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People), with representatives elected every five years.<refhttps://www.eci.gov.in/eci-backend/public/api/download?url=LMAhAK6sOPBp%2FNFF0iRfXbEB1EVSLT41NNLRjYNJJP1KivrUxbfqkDatmHy12e%2FztfbUTpXSxLP8g7dpVrk7%2FUZO%2FRM8%2BpHWJVE21FjUm4%2BeU4yXpAjiBqWC6EDPgOw6dOFtn933icz0MOeiesxvsQ%3D%3D</ref>
 
State governments have their own legislative assemblies and, in some states, legislative councils. Chief Ministers—elected by the legislative assemblies—serve as the heads of state governments under the symbolic authority of Governors appointed by the President.<ref>Constitution of India, Articles 155–167.</ref>
 
India follows a multiparty democratic system. The dominant national parties include the [[Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)]] and the [[Indian National Congress]] (INC), along with regional parties such as the [[Trinamool Congress]], [[Aam Aadmi Party]], and [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK)]].<ref>https://adrindia.org/</ref>
 
The judiciary is independent, with the [[Supreme Court of India]] at its apex, followed by High Courts at the state level and subordinate courts below. The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review and serves as the final authority on constitutional matters.<ref>https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s3ec0490f1f4972d133619a60c30f3559e/uploads/2024/11/2024112991.pdf.</ref>
 
India’s constitution guarantees a range of rights, including fundamental rights (e.g., equality, freedom of speech, and religion) and Directive Principles of State Policy, which serve as guidelines for governance.<ref>Constitution of India, Chapters III & IV.</ref> It also provides reservation quotas for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes in education and government jobs to ensure social equity.<ref>Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Report on Reservations 2024.</ref>
 
Elections at the Union and State levels are overseen by the [[Election Commission of India]], an autonomous body established to ensure free and fair elections using Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter-Verified Paper Audit Trails (VVPAT).<ref>https://www.eci.gov.in/annual-audit-reports.</ref>
 
India’s political landscape includes diverse institutions and mechanisms for accountability, such as the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG), the Central Vigilance Commission (CVC), and the Right to Information Act (RTI), enacted in 2005 to promote transparency.<ref>https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s380537a945c7aaa788ccfcdf1b99b5d8f/uploads/2024/07/202407041095928324.pdf.</ref>
 
At the international level, India's foreign policy is shaped by its non-aligned history, strategic partnerships, and growing role in global forums such as [[BRICS]], [[G20]], [[QUAD]], and the United Nations.<ref>https://www.mea.gov.in/Annual_Reports.htm?dtl/38005/Annual_Report_20232024</ref>
 
=='''Government'''==
 
India operates as a '''sovereign socialist secular democratic republic''' governed by a '''parliamentary system''' as outlined in the [[Constitution of India]], which came into effect on 26 January 1950.<ref>Government of India. (1950). The Constitution of India. Ministry of Law and Justice. Retrieved from https://legislative.gov.in/constitution-of-india</ref> The [[President of India]] is the formal head of the state and serves primarily ceremonial duties, while real executive power lies with the [[Prime Minister]], who is the head of government and leads the [[Union Council of Ministers]].<ref>President of India. (2024). Role and Functions. Retrieved from https://presidentofindia.nic.in/</ref>
 
The Indian government is divided into three main branches: the Executive, the Legislature, and the Judiciary.
 
The Executive consists of the [[President]], [[Vice President]], [[Prime Minister]], and the [[Council of Ministers]]. The [[Prime Minister of India]] is appointed by the President and is generally the leader of the majority party or coalition in the [[Lok Sabha]]. The Council of Ministers aids and advises the President in the exercise of their functions.<ref>Press Information Bureau. (2023). Structure of Indian Executive. Retrieved from https://www.pib.gov.in/indexd.aspx</ref>
 
The Legislature, known as the [[Parliament of India]], is bicameral and consists of two houses: the [[Rajya Sabha]] (Council of States) and the [[Lok Sabha]] (House of the People). The Lok Sabha is directly elected by the citizens through general elections held every five years, while the Rajya Sabha members are elected by state legislative assemblies or nominated by the President.<ref>Lok Sabha Secretariat. (2024). Functioning of Parliament. Retrieved from https://loksabha.nic.in</ref>
 
The Judiciary is independent and is headed by the [[Supreme Court of India]], followed by High Courts in each state and lower courts at district and subordinate levels. The judiciary is entrusted with upholding the Constitution, interpreting laws, and delivering justice. The Supreme Court has the power of [[judicial review]] and is the guardian of fundamental rights.
 
India's federal structure divides powers between the Union and the States, detailed in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution under the Union List, State List, and Concurrent List.<ref>Ministry of Law and Justice. (2023). Distribution of Legislative Powers. Retrieved from https://legislative.gov.in/</ref> Each state has its own government with a [[Governor]] as the ceremonial head and a [[Chief Minister]] as the real executive authority.
 
India ensures democratic participation through institutions like the [[Election Commission of India]], which conducts free and fair elections at both national and state levels.<ref>Election Commission of India. (2023). Electoral Process in India. Retrieved from https://eci.gov.in</ref> Laws are enforced by civil services and police under the oversight of various ministries and departments, while the legislative oversight is exercised through parliamentary debates, questions, and committees.
 
The government also provides reservation policies for [[Scheduled Castes]], [[Scheduled Tribes]], and [[Other Backward Classes]] in education and employment, and has schemes to address poverty, health, education, and social welfare through ministries like the [[Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment]] and the [[Ministry of Rural Development]].<ref>Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. (2024). Annual Report. Retrieved from https://socialjustice.gov.in/</ref>
 
=='''Administrative divisions'''==
 
India is a [[federal union]] comprising 28 states and 8 union territories. Each state and union territory has its own administrative structure, with division of power between the [[Union government]] and the respective state or territory governments as defined in the [[Constitution of India]].<ref>Government of India. (2024). States and Union Territories. National Portal of India. Retrieved from https://www.india.gov.in/</ref>
 
Each [[state]] has its own [[Legislative Assembly]] and an elected [[Chief Minister]] who heads the executive branch, while the [[Governor]] acts as the ceremonial head, appointed by the [[President of India]]. Some states also have a bicameral legislature with a [[Legislative Council]] as the upper house (e.g., Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar, and Telangana).<ref>Ministry of Home Affairs. (2024). States and Their Legislatures. Retrieved from https://xn--i1b5bzbybhfo5c8b4bxh.xn--11b7cb3a6a.xn--h2brj9c/en</ref>
 
The [[union territories]] are governed directly by the [[Central Government]] through an appointed [[Lieutenant Governor]] or [[Administrator]]. However, three union territories—[[Delhi]], [[Puducherry]], and [[Jammu and Kashmir]]—have been granted partial statehood, meaning they have elected legislative assemblies and enjoy a greater degree of self-governance.<ref>Election Commission of India. (2023). Delimitation and Governance of UTs. Retrieved from https://www.eci.gov.in/</ref>
 
For administrative purposes, states and union territories are further divided into districts (as of 2024, over 775 in total), which are governed by a [[District Collector]] or [[District Magistrate]] appointed from the Indian Administrative Service (IAS). Each district is subdivided into [[tehsils]] or [[talukas]], and further into blocks, towns, and villages.
 
''To promote decentralisation, India follows a three-tier system of local self-government:''
 
• Gram Panchayats at the village level,
 
• Panchayat Samitis at the block level,
 
• Zila Parishads at the district level in rural areas, and
 
•Municipal Corporations, Municipal Councils, and Nagar Panchayats in urban areas.<ref>Ministry of Panchayati Raj. (2024). Structure and Role of PRIs. Retrieved from https://panchayat.gov.in</ref>
 
This administrative structure ensures governance and service delivery across a vast and diverse population. '''Article 1''' of the Constitution describes India as a "[[Union of States]]", which signifies that the Indian federation is not the result of an agreement among states, and states do not have the right to secede.<ref>Constitution of India. (1950). Article 1. Retrieved from https://legislative.gov.in/</ref>
 
=='''Foreign, economic, and strategic relations'''==
 
Since gaining independence in 1947, India has pursued a foreign policy rooted in principles of non-alignment and peaceful coexistence. Under [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], India became a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), choosing not to formally align with either the [[United States]] or the Soviet Union during the Cold War.<ref>Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. (2024). India and the Non-Aligned Movement. Retrieved from https://www.mea.gov.in/</ref>
 
In the 21st century, India's foreign relations have diversified significantly. It maintains strategic partnerships with major global powers such as the [[United States]], [[Russia]], the European Union, Japan, and increasingly with Australia. India is also an active participant in regional and multilateral platforms such as:
 
•'''United Nations''' (UN),
 
•'''World Trade Organization''' (WTO),
 
•'''South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation''' (SAARC),
 
•'''Shanghai Cooperation Organisation''' (SCO),
 
•''BRICS'' (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa), and
 
•'''Quadrilateral Security Dialogue''' (Quad), alongside the US, Japan, and Australia.<ref>United Nations India. (2023). India's Engagement with the UN. Retrieved from https://india.un.org</ref><ref>MEA India. (2024). India's Strategic Partners. Retrieved from https://www.mea.gov.in/</ref>
 
India's immediate neighbourhood policy—Neighbourhood First—prioritises strong diplomatic and economic ties with South Asian countries like [[Nepal]], Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and [[Maldives]]. However, its relationship with [[Pakistan]] has remained tense due to historical conflicts, especially over [[Kashmir]]. Bilateral ties with [[China]] have also been strained by border disputes, notably the 2020 Galwan Valley clash.<ref>Al Jazeera. (2023). India-China Border Tensions Continue. Retrieved from https://www.aljazeera.com</ref>
 
Economically, India has emerged as one of the world's fastest-growing major economies. It is a key player in global trade and investment. The government promotes initiatives like [[Make in India]], [[Digital India]], and [[Startup India]] to boost exports, attract foreign investment, and develop high-tech infrastructure.<ref>Ministry of Commerce and Industry. (2024). India’s Economic Diplomacy. Retrieved from https://commerce.gov.in/</ref>
 
India is also a major contributor to [[United Nations peacekeeping operations]] and actively promotes global development, South-South cooperation, and climate action. As part of the [[International Solar Alliance]] (ISA), co-founded with France, India is leading global efforts in renewable energy adoption.<ref>International Solar Alliance. (2024). Member Countries. Retrieved from https://isolaralliance.org/</ref>
 
Strategically, India maintains one of the largest military forces in the world. It is a ''nuclear weapons state'' and operates a tri-service command structure—''Indian Army'', ''Indian Navy'', and ''Indian Air Force''. India is also expanding its influence in the ''Indo-Pacific'' region through naval cooperation and maritime security dialogues.<ref>Global Firepower Index. (2024). India Military Ranking 2024. Retrieved from https://www.globalfirepower.com/</ref>
 
India’s foreign policy today balances its historic values of peaceful diplomacy with its contemporary ambitions of becoming a regional and global power.
 
'''Economy'''
 
The '''Economy of India''' is a '''mixed economy'''—featuring both public and private sector participation—ranking as the fifth-largest in the world by nominal GDP and the third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP) as of 2024.<ref>International Monetary Fund. (April 2024). World Economic Outlook Database. Retrieved from https://www.imf.org/en/Home</ref> With an average GDP growth rate of 6–7% over the past decade, India is one of the fastest-growing major economies globally.
 
The Indian economy has undergone significant transformation since the 1991 economic liberalization, when reforms opened up the country to foreign investment, privatization, and reduced trade barriers. These changes led to a surge in sectors like information technology, telecommunications, banking, and pharmaceuticals.<ref>World Bank. (2023). India Country Overview. Retrieved from https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/india</ref>
 
Today, India's economy is broadly divided into:
 
•Agriculture, which employs around 43% of the workforce but contributes less than 18% to GDP;
 
•Industry, including manufacturing, construction, and energy, contributing about 25% to GDP;
 
•Services sector, which is the largest contributor at over 55% of GDP, including IT, finance, and education.<ref>Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI), Government of India. (2024). GDP Sectoral Composition. Retrieved from https://mospi.gov.in/</ref>
 
India is a global leader in IT and software services, with cities like Bengaluru, [[Hyderabad]], and [[Pune]] hosting major tech firms. Tata Consultancy Services (TCS), Infosys, and Wipro are among the top global IT service providers.<ref>NASSCOM. (2024). Indian IT Sector Outlook. Retrieved from https://nasscom.in/</ref>
 
The country also has a robust financial system, with institutions like the [[Reserve Bank of India]] (RBI) playing a central role in monetary policy and regulation. The Mumbai Stock Exchange (BSE) and the National Stock Exchange (NSE) are among the largest stock exchanges in the world by market capitalization.<ref>RBI Annual Report 2023-24. Retrieved from https://www.rbi.org.in/</ref>
 
India's agricultural output ranks second globally and it is a major exporter of rice, spices, cotton, tea, and sugar. Government schemes like PM-KISAN, eNAM, and the Minimum Support Price (MSP) system aim to support farmers and improve rural incomes.<ref>Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare. (2024). Retrieved from https://agriwelfare.gov.in/</ref>
 
The country is also a major player in the manufacturing sector, particularly through the government's flagship '''Make in India''' initiative, which encourages both domestic and foreign companies to manufacture in India. Industrial corridors, SEZs, and infrastructure projects are accelerating this growth.<ref>Make in India. (2024). Retrieved from https://www.makeinindia.com</ref>
 
''Foreign Direct Investment'' (FDI) inflows into India reached over $85 billion in 2023–24, with major investments in fintech, e-commerce, real estate, and renewable energy.<ref>Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT). (2024). Retrieved from https://dpiit.gov.in</ref>
 
The Indian government has also launched transformative initiatives such as:
 
''Digital India'' – promoting digital infrastructure and internet access,
 
''Startup India'' – supporting entrepreneurship and innovation,
 
''Atmanirbhar Bharat'' – aimed at making India self-reliant in key sectors.
 
India is a major energy consumer, dependent on oil imports but also expanding rapidly in renewable energy. It ranks fourth in the world for installed renewable energy capacity, driven by initiatives under the International Solar Alliance and domestic solar/wind projects.<ref>International Energy Agency (IEA). (2024). India Energy Outlook. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org</ref>
 
''Despite the progress, India faces challenges such as:''
 
• high unemployment among youth,
 
• rural-urban economic disparity,
 
• inflationary pressures,
 
•infrastructure gaps.
 
However, with its young population, growing middle class, and strong entrepreneurial ecosystem, India is expected to remain a key driver of global economic growth in the coming decades.
 
=='''''Culture'''''==
The '''Culture of India''' is one of the world's oldest and most diverse, shaped by a long history of regional, linguistic, religious, and ethnic multiplicity. It reflects a rich tapestry of traditions, spiritual philosophies, literature, art, and social norms that have evolved over thousands of years. Indian culture has had a significant influence on regions across Asia, the Middle East, and even parts of Europe, particularly through the spread of religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism via the Silk Road and maritime trade.<ref>https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/lekl125.pdf</ref>
 
'''Religion and Spirituality'''
 
India is the birthplace of several major world religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. It is also home to substantial populations of Muslims, Christians, Zoroastrians, Jews, and Baháʼís. Religious diversity and tolerance have historically been integral to Indian society, though interfaith dynamics have sometimes led to tensions.<ref>Government of India, Ministry of Minority Affairs. (2024). Religious Communities in India. Retrieved from https://minorityaffairs.gov.in</ref>
 
'''Languages and Literature'''
 
India recognizes 22 official languages under the Eighth Schedule of the [[Constitution of India]], with [[Hindi]] in the Devanagari script as the official language of the central government and English as an associate official language.<ref>Ministry of Home Affairs. (2024). Language Policy. Retrieved from https://www.mha.gov.in</ref> Major regional languages include Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, and Kannada.
 
India has a vast literary heritage, with ancient texts such as the ''Vedas'', ''Upanishads'', ''Ramayana'', and ''Mahabharata''. Classical literature in ''Sanskrit'', ''Tamil'', and ''Pali'' flourished alongside regional traditions. In modern times, authors like ''Rabindranath Tagore'', ''Premchand'', ''R.K. Narayan'', ''Arundhati Roy'', and ''Salman Rushdie'' have gained international recognition.<ref>India's Ministry of Culture. (2024). Literary Heritage of India. Retrieved from https://www.indiaculture.nic.in</ref>
 
'''Art and Architecture'''
 
India boasts a broad spectrum of art forms, from the cave paintings of ''Ajanta'' and ''Ellora'' to contemporary installations. Major schools of painting include ''Mughal miniature'', ''Rajput'', and ''Madhubani'' styles. Sculpture and temple architecture have evolved under dynasties like the ''Maurya'', ''Chola'', and [[Mughal Empire]], with iconic structures such as the [[Taj Mahal]], ''Khajuraho temples'', and ''Konark Sun Temple''.<ref>Archaeological Survey of India. (2024). Retrieved from https://asi.nic.in</ref>
 
'''Performing Arts'''
 
India's performing arts encompass a rich tradition of ''classical music'', ''dance'', and ''theatre''. Classical dance forms include ''Bharatanatyam'', ''Kathak'', ''Odissi'', ''Kuchipudi'', and ''Manipuri'', each with deep roots in temple rituals and storytelling.<ref>Sangeet Natak Akademi. (2024). Classical Dance and Music Traditions of India. Retrieved from https://sangeetnatak.gov.in/</ref>
 
Classical music is broadly categorized into the ''Hindustani'' tradition of the north and the ''Carnatic'' style of the south. Popular music includes genres like ''Bollywood music'', ''Indipop'', ''folk music'', and ''fusion''.
 
'''Cinema and Media'''
 
India has the largest film industry in the world by volume, with thousands of movies produced annually in languages like Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, and Bengali. Bollywood, centered in Mumbai, is internationally renowned. Indian cinema has gained global acclaim through filmmakers such as Satyajit Ray, Rajkumar Hirani, and SS Rajamouli.
 
India is also a leader in media production, with an expansive network of television, radio, and digital content across multiple languages. News and entertainment channels reach hundreds of millions daily.
 
'''Cuisine'''
 
Indian cuisine is known for its diverse flavors, aromatic spices, and regional variation. Staple ingredients include rice, lentils, wheat, spices like ''turmeric'', ''cardamom'', and ''cumin'', and herbs such as ''coriander'' and ''mint''. Regional cuisines such as ''Punjabi'', ''South Indian'', ''Gujarati'', ''Bengali'', and ''Kashmiri'' offer unique flavors and cooking techniques.<ref>Ministry of Tourism, Government of India. (2024). Incredible India – Cuisine. Retrieved from https://www.incredibleindia.gov.in/en</ref>
 
Indian food has a vast international following, with Indian restaurants and culinary traditions influencing global gastronomy.
 
'''Festivals and Traditions'''
 
''India celebrates a multitude of religious and cultural festivals, including:''
 
•'''Diwali''' (Festival of Lights),
 
•'''Holi''' (Festival of Colors),
 
•'''Eid al-Fitr''',
 
•'''Christmas''',
 
•'''Navratri''',
 
•'''Pongal''',
 
•'''Onam'''.
 
These festivals are marked by music, dance, rituals, and community gatherings, often blending religious devotion with social celebration.<ref>Press Information Bureau. (2024). Indian Festivals and Celebrations. Retrieved from https://www.pib.gov.in/indexd.aspx</ref>


== Religion and Society ==
== Religion and Society ==
India is a secular nation with a pluralistic society. Major religions include [[Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Christianity]], [[Sikhism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]]. The Indian Constitution guarantees freedom of religion and cultural expression.
 
[[India]] is one of the most religiously diverse nations in the world, home to all major world religions and many indigenous faiths. The country has no official state religion, and the [[Constitution of India]] declares it a secular state, guaranteeing freedom of religion under ''Article 25'' and prohibiting discrimination on religious grounds.<ref>Government of India. (2024). Constitution of India – Article 25. Retrieved from https://legislative.gov.in/</ref>
 
India is the birthplace of four of the world's major religions — ''Hinduism'', ''Buddhism'', ''Jainism'', and ''Sikhism'' — and continues to be a significant center of spiritual and religious activity. Hinduism is practiced by around 79.8% of the population, followed by Islam (14.2%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.7%), Buddhism (0.7%), and Jainism (0.4%), according to the 2011 Census.<ref>Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. (2011). Census of India – Religious Composition. Retrieved from https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/</ref>
 
Despite its constitutional commitment to secularism, religion plays a central role in Indian public and private life. Temples, mosques, churches, gurdwaras, and monasteries serve not only as places of worship but also as centers for education, healthcare, and community service.
 
'''Religious Harmony and Conflict'''
 
India has a long tradition of religious pluralism and syncretism. Cities like Varanasi, Amritsar, and Ajmer have served as religious melting pots for centuries. Sufi and Bhakti movements historically promoted interfaith harmony, stressing devotion over ritual and dogma.<ref>https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Past_as_Present/zLrFvQEACAAJ?hl=en</ref>
 
However, the country has also witnessed episodes of religious violence and tension. Notable incidents include the Partition of India (1947), the anti-Sikh riots (1984), the Babri Masjid demolition (1992), and the Gujarat riots (2002). In recent years, concerns over growing religious polarization and the use of religion in politics have drawn national and international scrutiny.<ref>Human Rights Watch. (2023). India: Religious Freedom Concerns Persist. Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org</ref>
 
'''Caste and Social Stratification'''
Traditional [[caste system]] structures, primarily associated with Hindu society but also influencing other communities, continue to impact Indian social life despite legal abolishment. The Constitution prohibits untouchability and provides affirmative action (reservation) for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes in education, employment, and political representation.<ref>National Commission for Scheduled Castes. (2024). Retrieved from https://ncsc.nic.in/</ref>
 
The rise of social reform movements and increased access to education have contributed to the weakening of caste-based discrimination in urban areas, but rural regions often retain hierarchical structures. Efforts by reformers like [[Dr. B.R. Ambedkar]] and movements such as Dalit Buddhism continue to seek greater equality and dignity for marginalized communities.
 
'''Role of Religion in Daily Life'''
Festivals, rituals, and pilgrimages are deeply embedded in Indian society. Major events like the [[Kumbh Mela]]—the largest human gathering on Earth—illustrate the scale of religious devotion.<ref>https://www.ptinews.com/story/national/maha-kumbh-begins-in-prayagraj-nearly-60-lakh-devotees-take-holy-dip/2197596</ref>
 
Religious identity often overlaps with social customs, including marriage, diet (such as vegetarianism), dress codes, and community organization. Religion also intersects with politics, media, education, and even law, especially in matters like personal law, where different religious communities follow separate civil codes related to marriage, divorce, inheritance, and adoption.
 


== See Also ==
== See Also ==
* [[Geography of India]]
* [[Mughal Empire]]
* [[History of India]]
* [[British East India Company]]
* [[Indian Economy]]
* [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]
* [[Indian Freedom Struggle]]
* [[Delhi Sultanate]]
* [[States and Union Territories of India]]
* [[States and Union Territories of India]]


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