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'''India''' officially the '''Republic of India''', is a country in South Asia. It is the '''seventh-largest country''' in the world by land area and, since 2023, the '''most populous country''', with over '''1.4 billion people'''.<ref>United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Population Prospects 2022</ref> Since its independence in 1947, India has been known as the world's '''largest democracy'''.<ref>Guha, Ramachandra. ''India After Gandhi''. Picador India, 2007.</ref>

Modern humans reached the Indian subcontinent from Africa at least 55,000 years ago.<ref>Reich, David. ''Who We Are and How We Got Here''. Oxford University Press, 2018.</ref> This long history gave rise to deep social and cultural diversity. Farming communities began around the Indus Valley more than 9,000 years ago, eventually forming the Indus Valley Civilisation—one of the world’s oldest urban cultures.<ref>Thapar, Romila. ''Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300''. Penguin Books, 2003.</ref>

Around 1200 BCE, an early form of [[Sanskrit]] entered the subcontinent through the northwest and merged with local traditions. This marked the beginning of [[Hinduism]].<ref>Witzel, Michael. "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools." Harvard University, 1997.</ref> India also saw the birth of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] in the 6th century BCE, which rejected caste and stressed nonviolence and spiritual liberation.<ref>Encyclopaedia Britannica entries on Buddhism and Jainism</ref>

Between the 7th and 15th centuries, religions such as Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism became established along India’s western and southern coasts.<ref>The Hindu, "How religions came to India", 2020.</ref> In the north, successive [[Delhi Sultanates]] and later the [[Mughal Empire]] brought major political changes and Islamic influence in culture, art, and architecture.<ref>Richards, John F. ''The Mughal Empire''. Cambridge University Press, 1993.</ref>

In the south, the Vijayanagara Empire promoted a vibrant Hindu cultural revival and maritime trade with Southeast Asia.<ref>Kulke, Hermann and Rothermund, Dietmar. ''A History of India''. Routledge, 2016.</ref> Meanwhile, [[Sikhism]] emerged in the 15th century in the [[Punjab]] region, promoting equality and community service.

The Indian [[freedom movement]], led by leaders like [[Mahatma Gandhi]], [[Bhagat singh]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], [[Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel]]<ref>https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/top-famous-freedom-fighters-of-india-1737527201-1</ref>,  used nonviolent resistance to demand self-rule.<ref>Gandhi, M.K. ''The Story of My Experiments with Truth''.</ref> India became independent in 1947, but the country was partitioned into two nations—India and Pakistan—which led to mass migrations and violence.<ref>Khan, Yasmin. ''The Great Partition''. Yale University Press, 2007.</ref>

India became a sovereign democratic republic in 1950 with a parliamentary system and a federal structure. It has emerged as one of the world’s fastest-growing major economies.<ref>International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook 2024</ref> Key industries include information technology, space research, agriculture, and manufacturing. India is also a major [[nuclear power]] and a space-faring nation through [[ISRO]].<ref>ISRO Annual Report 2023–24</ref>

India is a pluralistic, multi-ethnic, and multilingual society, with 22 official languages and hundreds of regional languages. Its population has grown from 361 million in 1951 to over 1.4 billion in 2023.<ref>United Nations Population Division, 2022</ref>

Poverty has significantly declined, but economic inequality remains a major challenge. India also continues to face air pollution, gender inequality, and child malnutrition.<ref>The Lancet, "India’s Double Burden: Malnutrition and Obesity", 2022.</ref> India ranks high in military expenditure and maintains complex relations with [[China]] and Pakistan, particularly over Kashmir.<ref>Al Jazeera, "India-China Border Disputes", 2023</ref>

The name '''India''' comes from the Latin word ''India'', which itself came from the Greek ''Indía'' (Ἰνδία), referring to the land beyond the Indus River.<ref>Oxford English Dictionary (2009). "India". Oxford University Press.</ref> The Ancient Greeks used the word ''Indos'' (Ἰνδός) for the Indus River, and called its people ''Indoi''—"people of the Indus".<ref>Boesche, Roger. ''The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra''. Lexington Books, 2002.</ref> This name passed into Old Persian as ''Hindush'', which was the name of a province in the Achaemenid Empire. The word comes from the [[Sanskrit]] word ''Sindhu'', meaning 'river', especially referring to the Indus.<ref>Thapar, Romila. ''The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300''. Penguin Books, 2003.</ref>

'''Bharat''' (or ''Bhārat'') is another official name for India, mentioned in ancient Indian epics like the ''Mahabharata'' and also in the [[Constitution of India]].<ref>The Constitution of India, Article 1(1)</ref> The name is a modern version of ''Bharatavarsha'', which originally meant the northern region of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>Sharma, R.S. ''India's Ancient Past''. Oxford University Press, 2005.</ref> From the 19th century, ''Bharat'' became widely used by Indians as a national name.<ref>Keay, John. ''India: A History''. HarperCollins, 2011.</ref>

'''Hindustan''' is another historical name, first used in Middle Persian to refer to the land of the Indus. It became common during the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and [[Mughal Empire]], referring mainly to [[North India]], but was also used for the whole subcontinent at times.<ref>Alam, Muzaffar. ''The Languages of Political Islam: India 1200–1800''. University of Chicago Press, 2004.</ref>

By about 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans (''Homo sapiens'') arrived in the Indian subcontinent from Africa<ref>Smithsonian Magazine, “Essential timeline of Homo sapiens evolution”, 2021</ref>. The oldest modern human fossils in South Asia date to around 30,000 years ago.

By 6500 BCE, agricultural communities appeared at Mehrgarh (now in Pakistan), showing early domestication of crops and animals, permanent houses, and grain storage<ref>Khan Academy: Neolithic Mehrgarh, 2019</ref><ref>Dyson, Tim. Migration of Homo sapiens; Archaeological Survey of India, 2025</ref>. Between 2500–1900 BCE, these societies evolved into the Indus Valley Civilisation, one of the world’s earliest urban cultures, with major cities like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan<ref>Cambridge Univ. Press: Archaeology of South Asia, 2015</ref><ref>Penn Museum on Indus maritime trade</ref>. This civilisation excelled in agriculture, crafts (such as bead making and bronze tools), standardised weights, urban drainage, and extensive trade—including with Mesopotamia via seals and beads<ref>Penn Museum: Shipping and Maritime Trade</ref><ref>Harappa.com: Trade & Technology</ref>.

By the 6th century BCE, larger political entities known as ''mahajanapadas'' formed in the Ganges and northwest regions<ref>Fisher, Michael H. Ancient Raj Migrations, 2010</ref>. Simultaneously, the non-Vedic religions [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] emerged, emphasising spiritual equality, renunciation, and monastic living<ref>Britannica entries on Jainism and Buddhism</ref>.

In the early 3rd century BCE, the Maurya Empire—originating from Magadha—unified much of northern and central India under rulers like Ashoka, who promoted Buddhist dhamma and public administration<ref>Richards, John F. The Maurya Empire, 1993</ref><ref>Guha, Ramachandra. India After Gandhi, 2007</ref>.

Between 200 BCE–200 CE, the Sangam literature describes South Indian kingdoms—the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas—which traded widely with the Roman Empire and Southeast Asia<ref>Kulke & Rothermund. A History of India, 2016</ref>. In the north, patriarchal norms strengthened, reducing the social standing of women<ref>Narasimhan, 2018. Gender in Early India</ref>.

The early medieval period of India, from 600 to 1200 CE, was marked by the rise of regional kingdoms and significant cultural diversity.<ref>Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Penguin, 2002.</ref>

'''King Harsha of Kannauj''' ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, but failed to expand his empire beyond north India. His southern campaign was stopped by the Chalukya dynasty of the Deccan, while his eastern ambitions were blocked by the Pala dynasty of Bengal.<ref>Keay, John. India: A History. HarperCollins, 2000.</ref> Likewise, when the Chalukyas tried to move further south, they were resisted by the Pallavas, who themselves faced opposition from the '''Pandyas''' and the emerging '''Chola''' dynasty.<ref>Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. A History of South India. Oxford University Press, 1955.</ref>

No single kingdom during this period could maintain control over lands outside their core territories.<ref>Chattopadhyaya, B.D. The Making of Early Medieval India. Oxford India Paperbacks, 1994.</ref> Pastoral communities, displaced by expanding agriculture, were absorbed into the growing caste system. New rulers, often from non-traditional backgrounds, were integrated as new castes, leading to regional variations in caste practices.<ref>Bayly, Susan. Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age. Cambridge University Press, 1999.</ref>

In the 6th and 7th centuries, devotional poetry known as the bhakti movement began in Tamil. These hymns, composed by saints like the Alvars and Nayanars, became popular across India, sparking a revival in [[Hinduism]] and shaping the modern Indian languages.<ref>Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press, 1996.</ref>

During this period, [[temples]] became not only religious centres but also economic and social hubs. Royal patronage led to the growth of temple towns across the subcontinent, contributing to a new wave of urbanisation.<ref>Stein, Burton. A History of India. Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.</ref>

South Indian influence also spread outside India during the 8th and 9th centuries. Indian culture, religion, and political ideas were transmitted to [[Southeast Asia]], influencing areas in today's [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Malaysia]].<ref>Coedès, George. The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press, 1968.</ref> This was achieved through merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies, while local Southeast Asian rulers also came to India to learn and translate religious texts.<ref>Mabbett, Ian W., and David P. Chandler. The Khmers. Blackwell, 1995.</ref>

In the late 10th century, Central Asian Muslim clans, united by ethnicity and religion, invaded northwest India with swift horse-based armies, leading to the establishment of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in 1206 CE.<ref>Jackson, Peter. The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge University Press, 1999.</ref> Though initially disruptive, the sultans allowed non-Muslim subjects to follow their own laws and customs.<ref>Wink, André. Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World. Brill Academic Publishers, 1991.</ref>

By resisting Mongol invasions in the 13th century, the Delhi Sultanate saved India from destruction experienced in West and Central Asia, encouraging the migration of scholars, soldiers, artists, and mystics to India, which contributed to a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture.<ref>Sen, Amartya. The Argumentative Indian. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005.</ref>

The sultanate's weakening of South Indian kingdoms made way for the Vijayanagara Empire, which embraced Shaivism and adapted military technology from the Delhi rulers. The empire controlled most of peninsular India, leaving a lasting influence on South Indian culture, religion, and architecture.<ref>Sewell, Robert. A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar. Asian Educational Services, 2000.</ref><ref>Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. History of South India, Oxford University Press.</ref>

In the early 16th century, northern India, which had been ruled by a series of [[Delhi Sultanate]] dynasties, fell to a new group of Central Asian conquerors.<ref>Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press, 1995.</ref> These warriors, led by Babur, a descendant of both Timur and Genghis Khan, invaded India using gunpowder-based artillery and highly mobile cavalry.<ref>Thackston, Wheeler M. The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor. Oxford University Press, 1996.</ref>

Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, marking the beginning of the [[Mughal Empire]].<ref>Chandra, Satish. Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals, Part II. Har-Anand Publications, 2007.</ref> Although Babur's rule was short, his successors — most notably Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan — consolidated and expanded the empire during the 16th century.<ref>Alam, Muzaffar, and Subrahmanyam, Sanjay. The Mughal State, 1526–1750. Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref>

The Mughal state was one of the most centralised and efficient administrations of its time. Under Akbar, who ruled from 1556 to 1605, the empire expanded across most of North and Central India.<ref>Habib, Irfan. The Agrarian System of Mughal India 1556–1707. Oxford University Press, 1999.</ref> He introduced revenue reforms (such as the Zabt system), supported religious tolerance, and promoted a Persianised court culture that embraced Hindus, Muslims, and other communities.<ref>Metcalf, Barbara D., and Metcalf, Thomas R. A Concise History of Modern India. Cambridge University Press, 2006.</ref>

The Mughal court became a major patron of arts, architecture, and literature, commissioning monuments such as Humayun's Tomb and Fatehpur Sikri during the second half of the 16th century.<ref>Asher, Catherine B. Architecture of Mughal India. Cambridge University Press, 1992.</ref> The empire’s use of a silver-based currency and regulated markets helped stimulate trade and agriculture.<ref>Raychaudhuri, Tapan, and Habib, Irfan. The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume I (c.1200–c.1750). Cambridge University Press, 1982.</ref>

During this century, new social and political groups like the [[Rajputs]] were incorporated into the Mughal nobility, while others such as the [[Marathas]] and [[Sikhs]] began to emerge as independent forces.<ref>Gordon, Stewart. The Marathas 1600–1818. Cambridge University Press, 1993.</ref><ref>Singh, Khushwant. A History of the Sikhs, Vol. 1. Oxford University Press, 2004.</ref>

While the Mughals controlled much of the subcontinent, regional kingdoms such as the Ahom kingdom in the northeast, the Vijayanagara Empire in the south, and various Deccan Sultanates remained powerful players.<ref>Stein, Burton. A History of India. Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref>

By the end of the 16th century, India had become one of the most prosperous and populous regions of the world, with flourishing trade networks linking it to West Asia, Europe, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia.<ref>Subrahmanyam, Sanjay. The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650. Cambridge University Press, 1990.</ref>

During the 17th century, the [[Mughal Empire]] reached the height of its territorial and economic power. Under [[Emperor Jahangir]] (r. 1605–1627) and [[Shah Jahan]] (r. 1628–1658), the Mughal court became synonymous with opulence, architectural grandeur, and administrative sophistication.<ref>Chandra, Satish. History of Medieval India. Orient BlackSwan, 2007.</ref> The construction of the [[Taj Mahal]], one of the most iconic monuments of India, was completed in 1648 under Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal.<ref>Asher, Catherine B. Architecture of Mughal India. Cambridge University Press, 1992.</ref>

The empire’s economy, based on agriculture and trade, remained strong. A highly standardised system of taxation and land revenue, known as Zabt, continued to function, and large surpluses allowed the state to support vast armies and elaborate building projects.<ref>Habib, Irfan. The Agrarian System of Mughal India. Oxford University Press, 1999.</ref> Indian textiles, particularly cotton and silk, were in high demand across Europe and Southeast Asia, making India a central part of the Indian Ocean trade network.<ref>Subrahmanyam, Sanjay. The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650. Cambridge University Press, 1990.</ref>

European trading companies like the [[British East India Company]], '''Dutch East India Company''' (VOC), '''French East India Company''', and '''Portuguese Estado da Índia''' began to establish their presence on the Indian coasts during this period.<ref>Chaudhuri, K.N. The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company 1660–1760. Cambridge University Press, 1978.</ref> They set up factories (trading posts) in key locations such as Surat,Madras (Chennai), [[Bombay]] (Mumbai), and [[Calcutta]] (Kolkata).<ref>Marshall, P.J. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century. Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref>

During the reign of Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), the empire expanded to its greatest territorial extent, stretching from the Hindu Kush to the Cauvery River in the south.<ref>Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press, 1995.</ref> However, Aurangzeb’s long campaigns in the Deccan, especially against the [[Maratha Empire]], drained the empire’s resources and led to administrative fatigue.<ref>Gordon, Stewart. The Marathas 1600–1818. Cambridge University Press, 1993.</ref> His reimposition of Islamic laws such as the Jizya tax and destruction of some Hindu temples alienated sections of the Hindu population, creating unrest in several regions.<ref>Metcalf, Barbara, and Metcalf, Thomas R. A Concise History of Modern India. Cambridge University Press, 2006.</ref>

At the same time, regional powers like the Sikhs in Punjab, the [[Jats]] in the north, and the [[Marathas]] in the Deccan began asserting their autonomy, laying the foundation for the fragmentation of Mughal authority in the 18th century.<ref>Singh, Khushwant. A History of the Sikhs, Volume 1. Oxford University Press, 2004.</ref><ref>Bayly, C.A. Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press, 1988.</ref>

Despite these political strains, the 17th century is often considered the golden age of Mughal art, architecture, and commerce, characterised by architectural marvels, court paintings, and literary developments in Persian, Urdu, and Hindavi languages.<ref>Beach, Milo Cleveland. The New Cambridge History of India: Mughal and Rajput Painting. Cambridge University Press, 1992.</ref>

The 18th century marked the decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of regional powers across the Indian subcontinent. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the empire rapidly weakened due to administrative overreach, prolonged military campaigns, and increasing challenges from both internal rebellions and external forces.<ref>Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press, 1995.</ref> The central authority of the emperor diminished as provincial governors (nawabs and subahdars) and military elites declared independence or ruled autonomously while still acknowledging the nominal supremacy of the Mughal court in [[Delhi]].<ref>Marshall, P.J. The Eighteenth Century in Indian History: Evolution or Revolution? Oxford University Press, 2003.</ref>

Meanwhile, other regional powers such as the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Kingdom of Mysore, and the Sikh Confederacy in Punjab also asserted autonomy and engaged in state-building activities.<ref>Bayly, C.A. Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press, 1988.</ref><ref>Singh, Khushwant. A History of the Sikhs, Volume 1. Oxford University Press, 2004.</ref>